CIHM 
Microfiche 
Series 
(IMonographs) 


ICIMH 

Collection  de 
microfiches 
(monographies) 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  IMicroraproductions  /  Institut  Canadian  de  microraproductions  historiquas 


Technical  and  Bibliographic  Notes  /  Notes  techniques  et  bibliographiques 


The  Institut*  ha*  attamptad  to  obtain  tha  btx  original 
copy  availat>la  for  filming.  Faaturaa  of  ttiia  copy  wtiich 
may  t)a  t)it)llographicelly  uniqua,  which  may  altar  any  of 
tha  imagaa  in  tha  raproduction,  or  which  may 
significantiy  changa  tha  usual  mathod  of  filming  ara 
chackad  t)alow. 

r~^  CokMjrad  covars  / 
I-2LJ  Couvartura  do  couiaur 


D 
D 


D 
D 
D 
D 
D 


D 


D 


Covars  damagad  / 
Couvartura  andommagte 

Covers  restored  and/or  laminated  / 
Couverturs  restaurte  et/ou  pellicula 

Cover  title  missing  /  Le  titre  de  couverture  manque 

Coloured  maps  /  Cartes  gdographiques  en  couleur 

Coloured  ink  (i.e.  other  than  blue  or  black)  / 
Encre  de  couleur  (i.e.  autre  que  bleue  ou  noire) 

Cotoured  plates  and/or  illustrattons  / 
Planches  et/ou  illustrations  en  couleur 

Bound  with  other  material  / 
Reli6  avec  d'autres  documents 

Only  editton  available  / 
Seule  MItton  disponible 

Tight  binding  may  cause  shadows  or  distortion  along 
interior  margin  /  La  reliure  sen^  peut  causer  de 
I'ombre  ou  de  la  distorsion  le  long  de  la  marge 
intdrieure. 

Blank  leaves  added  during  restorattons  may  appear 
within  the  text.  Whenever  possible,  these  have  been 
omitted  from  filming  /  Use  peut  que  certaines  pages 
blanches  ajout^es  lors  d'une  restauration 
apparaissent  dans  le  texte,  mais,  lorsque  cela  6tait 
possible,  ces  pages  n'ont  pas  M  filmtes. 

Additional  comments  / 
Commentaires  suppl6mentcures: 


TMa  Mnn  la  filiMd  at  tha  rachietion  ratio  dMchad  tatow  / 

Ca  documant  aat  filing  au  tain  de  reduction  indiqu*  eMaaaoua. 


L'Instltut  a  microfilm*  la  mallleur  axamplaira  qu'il  iui  a 
M  possible  de  se  procurer.  Lea  dtelia  da  cat  axem- 
plaira  qui  sont  peut-4tre  unkjues  du  point  de  vue  bibii- 
ographk^,  qui  peuvent  nrKXttfier  une  image  reproduita. 
ou  qui  peuvent  exiger  une  modWcatkm  dana  la  mMno- 
de  normale  da  filmaga  sont  indk^ute  d-dassoua. 

I     I  CokMjrad  pages /Pagaade  couleur 

I I  Pagea  damaged  /  Pages  endommag^es 


D 


D 
D 


D 


Pages  restored  and/or  laminated  / 
Pages  restaurdes  et/ou  pellicuMes 


0  Pages  discokiured,  stained  or  foxed  / 
Pages  d^cotortes,  taw.'ietdes  ou  pkjutes 

I     I  Pages  detached  /  Pages  d^tach^es 

\y\  Showthrough/ Transparence 

I     I  Quality  of  print  varies  / 


Quality  in^gale  de  I'impresston 

Includes  supplementary  material  / 
Comprend  du  materiel  suppl6mentaire 

Pages  wholly  or  partially  obscured  by  errata  slips, 
tissues,  etc.,  have  been  refilmed  to  ensure  the  best 
possible  image  /  Les  pages  totalement  ou 
partiellemer\.  obscurcies  par  un  feuillet  d'errata,  une 
pelure,  etc.,  ont  6t6  filmdes  k  nouveau  de  fagon  k 
obtenir  la  meilleure  image  possible. 

Opposing  pages  with  varying  colouration  or 
discok>uratk>ns  are  filmed  twtee  to  ensure  the  best 
possible  image  /  Les  pages  s'opposant  ayant  des 
colorations  variables  ou  des  d^icolorations  sont 
film^es  deux  fois  afin  d'obtenir  la  meilleure  image 
possible. 


lOx 

14x 

18x 

22x 

28x 

30x 

i 

/ 

12x 

lex 

20x 

a4x 

28x 

32x 

Th«  eo^  fNmad  h«r*  has  baan  raproducad  thaniia 
totha  ganaraalty  af : 

National  Library  of  Canada 


L'axampiaira  fMm4  fut  rapreduit  grica  A  ia 
g«n«roait*  da: 

Bibllothiqua  natlonala  du  Canada 


Tha  imagaa  appaaring  hara  ara  tha 
paaalfcia  aanaidaring  tha  aandMan 
of  tha  original  eapy  and  in  itaaping 


quaUty 
lagibiiity 


Original  eapiaa  in  printad 
baginning  with  tha  front  eovar  and  anding  on 
tha  laat  paga  with  a  prbitad  or  illuatratad  impraa* 
aien,  or  tho  back  aovar  whan  appropriata.  AN 
othor  original  eapiaa  ara  fNmad  ba^nning  an  tha 
firat  paga  with  a  printad  or  illuatratad  impraa* 
aion.  and  anding  on  tha  laat  paga  with  a  printad 
or  illuatratad  impraaaian. 


Lat  imagaa  suivantaa  ant  «t«  rapreduitaa  avac  la 
piua  grand  soin,  compta  tanu  da  la  condition  at 
da  ia  nattat*  da  raaampiaira  film«,  at  w 
eonformit*  avae  laa  conditiona  du  eontrat  da 
•iNnaga* 

Laa  aiampiairaa  originaun  dont  ia  eouvartura  an 
papiar  aat  imprimto  aont  filmte  an  commandant 
par  ia  pramiar  plat  at  tn  tarminant  soit  par  la 
damlAra  paga  qui  eomporta  una  amprainta 
d'impraaaion  ou  dlHuatration.  soit  par  la  sacond 
plat,  salon  lo  eaa.  Tous  laa  autras  axamplairas 
originauK  sont  fUmda  an  commandant  par  la 
pramiira  paga  qui  eomporto  uiw  amprainta 
dimpraaaion  ou  d'iiluatration  at  an  tarminant  par 
la  damiira  paga  qui  eomporta  una  talla 
amprainta. 


Tha  iaat  raeordod  frame  on  ooeh  mieroficho 
ahall  contain  tha  symbol  «^  (moaning  "CON* 
TINUf  D").  or  tha  symbol  ▼  (moaning  "END"), 
whiehavar  appliaa« 


Un  daa  symbolee  suivants  spparaltra  sur  la 
damiira  image  da  cheque  microfiche,  selon  le 
eas:  la  symboia  ^  signifie  "A  SUIVRE".  le 
symbolo  ▼  signifie  "FIN". 


Mope,  plataa.  eharta.  etc..  may  be  filmed  at 
different  reduction  retios.  Those  too  ierge  to  be 
entirely  included  in  one  eapoeure  ere  filmed 
beginning  in  the  upper  left  hand  comer,  left  to 
right  and  top  to  bottom,  as  many  frames  aa 
required.  The  following  diegrems  illustrate  the 
method: 


Los  cartaa.  planchee.  tabieaux.  etc.,  peuvent  itre 
fiimto  A  dee  taua  da  rMuction  diffArants. 
Lorsque  le  document  est  trop  grand  pour  Atra 
raproduit  en  un  soul  ciichA.  il  est  film*  A  partir 
da  i'angie  supArieur  gauche,  do  gauche  A  droite. 
et  do  haut  en  baa.  en  prenant  la  nombre 
d'imegee  nAcessaira.  I.aa  diagrammes  suivants 
illustrent  ia  mAthode. 


12  3 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

4^? 


I  Carnegie  Endowment  for  International  Peace 

DIVISION  OF  ECONOMICS  ANO  HISTORY 

JOHN  lATIS  CLARK.  DIRECTOR 


1^ 


PRELIMINARY  ECONOMIC  STUDIES  OF  THE  WAR 


■DITID  Vt 

DAVID  KINLEY 

rrolcHot  ot  ralllletl  Iconwir,  Unlmtlir  ol  IIIImIi 
MwbrT  iri  CoMilim  ol  RtMiKt  ot  Ika  Iii4<»imm 


ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR  UPON 

WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN 

GREAT  BRITAIN 


BY 
IRENE  OSGOOD  ANDREWS 

AMiiltnt  Secretary  of  the  American  Astociation 
(or  Labor  Legislation 

ASSISTED  BY 
MARGARET  "»RBS 


I 


NEW  YORK 

OXFORD  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 

AMERICAN     BRANCH:     3S     WEST    32sD    STREET 

London,  Toronto,  Melbourne  and  Bombay 

1918 


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tl: 


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COmMNT  l*lt 

•r  Tm 

C«>*MII  IMDOWMIirr  fO«  limtllATIONAL  riAC* 

>  IMIMM  pun 

Wamiii«tom,  D.  C. 


PiiM  OF  BYtoa  8.  Adami 
Waihincton,  D.  C. 


•  111158 


INTRODUCTORY  NOTE  BY  THE  DIRECTOR 

Th«  DivUion  of  EconomicA  and  History  of  the  Carnegie 
Endowment  for  International  Peace  it  organin  .  1 1  "promote 
a  thorough  and  Kientific  investigation  of  the  causes  and  resultt 
of  war."  In  accordance  with  this  purpose  a  conference  of  emi- 
nent statesmen,  publicists,  and  economists  was  held  in  Berne, 
Switzerland,  in  August,  1911,  at  which  a  jrfan  of  investigation 
was  formed  and  an  extensive  list  of  tofucs  was  prepared.  An 
elaborate  series  of  investigations  was  undertaken,  and,  if  the  war 
had  mA  intervened,  the  resulting  reports  might  have  been  ex- 
pected, before  the  prcwnt  datr.  in  printed  form. 

Of  works  so  undertaken  some  aim  to  reveal  direct  and  indi- 
rect consequences  of  warfare,  and  thus  to  furnish  a  basis  for  a 
judgment  as  to  the  reasonableness  of  the  resort  to  it.  If  the 
evils  are  in  reality  larger  and  the  benciiu  smaller  than  in  the 
common  view  they  appear  to  be,  such  studies  should  furnish 
convincing  evidence  of  this  fact  and  afford  a  basis  for  an  en- 
lightened policy  whenever  there  is  danger  of  international  con- 
flicts. 

Studies  of  the  causes  of  warfare  re\"»l,  in  particular,  those 
economic  influences  which  in  timv  of  peace  bring  about  clashing 
interests  and  mutual  suspicion  and  hostility.  They  show  what 
♦•-•licies,  as  adopted  by  different  nafimj,  reduce  the  conflicts  of 
u..  est,  inure  to  the  common  be'  and  afford  a  basis  for 
international  confidence  and  good  v.....  They  tend,  further,  to 
reveal  the  natural  economic  influences  which  of  themselves  bring 
about  more  and  more  harmonious  relations  and  tend  to  substi- 
tute general  benefits  for  the  mutual  injuries  that  follow  unin- 
..Jligent  self-seeking.  Economic  internationalism  needs  to  be 
fortified  by  the  mutual  trust  that  just  dealing  creates;  but  just 
conduct  itself  may  bs  favored  by  economic  conditions.  These, 
in  turn,  may  be  created  partly  by  a  natural  evolution  and  partly 


iirriHwvcroiiv  notk  by  thk  dirkctor 


by  the  coniciouf  action  of  govemincntt;  Mid  both  evolutiaa  and 
public  action  are  among  the  important  tubjccts  of  investigation. 

An  appeal  to  reason  it  in  order  when  excited  feelingi  render 
armed  conflicts  imminent:  but  it  is  quite  at  turely  called  for 
when  no  excitement  exitti  and  when  it  may  be  forettalled  and 
prevented  from  developing  by  sound  national  policies.  To  fur- 
nish a  scientific  basis  for  reasonable  international  poticin  it  the 
purpose  of  some  of  the  studies  already  in  progress  and  of  more 
that  will  hereafter  be  undertaken. 

The  war  has  interrupted  work  on  rather  more  than  a  half  of 
the  studies  that  were  in  progress  when  it  began,  but  it  has  itself 
furnished  topics  of  immediate  and  transcendent  importance. 
The  costs,  direct  and  indirect,  of  the  conflict,  the  commercial 
policies  induced  by  it  and,  especially,  the  direct  control,  which 
because  of  it,  governments  are  now  exercising  in  many  spheres 
of  economic  activity  where  formerly  competition  and  individual 
freedom  held  sway,  are  {Aenometu  that  call,  before  ahnost  all 
others,  for  scientific  study.  It  is  expected  that  most  of  the  tn- 
temipted  work  will  ultimately  be  resumed  and  that,  in  the 
interim  before  this  occurs,  studies  of  ev^n  greater  importance 
will  be  undertaken  and  will  be  pushed  rapidly  toward  comple- 
tion. 

The  publications  of  the  Division  of  Economics  and  History 
are  under  the  direction  of  a  Committee  of  Research,  the  mem- 
bership of  which  includes  the  statesmen,  publicists,  and  econo- 
mists who  participated  in  the  Conference  at  Berne  in  1911,  and 
tno  who  have  since  been  added.  The  list  of  members  at 
present  is  as  follows: 

Eugene  Bord,  Professor  of  Public  and  International  Law  in 
the  University  of  Geneva. 

Lujo  Brentano.*  Professor  of  Economics  in  the  University  of 
Munich ;  Member  of  the  Royal  Bavarian  Academy  of  Sciences. 

Charles  Gide,  Professor  of  Comparative  Social  Economics  in 
the  University  of  Paris. 

'Memlxrihip  ceaied  April  6,  1917,  by  reason  oj  the  declaration  of  a  itate 
of  war  between  the  United  Stttei  and  the  Imperial  German  Government. 


IKTKODUCTOIIY  NOTE  BY  Till  OIMCTOR 


H  B.  Grtvcn.  Profeuor  of  Political  Economy  and  Slatiitica 
in  the  Univenity  of  Leiden. 

Francis  W.  Hint,  London. 

David  Kinky.  Profeuor  of  Political  Economy  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Illincis. 

Henri  La  Fontaine,  S  nator  of  Belgium. 

His  Excellency  Luigi  Lusiatti,  Profesior  of  Constitutional 
Law  in  the  University  of  Rome;  Secretary  of  the  Treuury, 
1891-3;  Prime  Minister  of  Ftily,  1908-11. 

Gotaro  Ogawa,  Professor  of  Finance  at  the  University  of 
Kioto,  Japan. 

Sir  George  Paish,  London. 

MafiTeo  Panteleoni,  Professor  of  Political  Economy  in  the 
University  of  Rome. 

Eugen  Philippovich  von  Philippsberg.'  Professor  of  Political 
Economy  in  the  University  of  Vienna ;  Member  of  the  Austrian 
Herrenhaus,  Hofrat. 

Paul  S.  Reinsch,  United  States  Minister  to  China. 

His  Excellency  Baron  Y.  Sakatani,  recently  Minister  of 
Finance;  present  Mayor  of  Tokio. 

Theodor  Schiemann.'  Professor  of  the  History  of  Eastern 
Europe  in  the  University  of  Berlin. 

Harald  Westergaard.  Protc«sor  of  Political  Science  and  Statis- 
tics in  the  University  of  Copenhagen. 

Friedrich  Freiherr  von  Wieser,*  Professcr  of  Political  Econ- 
wny  in  the  University  of  Vienna. 

The  function  of  members  of  this  Committee  is  to  select  col- 
laborators competent  to  conduct  investigations  and  present  re- 
ports in  the  form  of  books  or  monognfhs;  to  consult  with  these 
writers  as  to  plans  of  study;  to  read  the  completed  manu:crip-s 
and  to  inform  the  officers  of  the  Endowment  whether  they  i.i..  t 
publication  in  its  series.     This  editorial  function  does  not  com- 

«Died,  June,  1917. 

'Membership  cewed  April  6,  1917,  by  rea>on  of  the  dediration  of  i  itate 
of  war  between  the  United  States  and  the  Imperial  German  Government 

.f.'.!l*^T»It*'i£."""lu"V,*"'^''/'  '"'•  ^  •■"•o"  »'  *«  declaration  of  a 
Itate  of  war  between  the  United  States  and  AustrU-Hungary. 


▼1 


INTRODUCTORY  NOTE  BY  THE  DIRECTOR 


mit  the  members  of  the  Committee  to  any  opinions  expressed  by 
the  writers.  Like  other  editors,  they  are  asked  to  vouch  for  the 
usefulness  of  the  works,  their  scientific  and  literary  merit,  and 
the  advisability  of  issuing  them.  In  like  manner  the  publica- 
tion of  the  monographs  does  not  commit  tho  Endowment  as  a 
body  or  any  of  its  officers  to  the  opinions  which  may  be  ex- 
pressed in  them.  The  standing  and  attainments  of  the  writers 
selected  afford  a  guarantee  of  thoroughness  of  research  and 
accuracy  in  the  statement  of  facts,  and  the  character  of  many  of 
the  works  will  be  such  that  facts,  statistical,  historical,  and 
descriptive,  will  constitute  nearly  the  whole  of  their  content.  In 
so  far  as  the  opinions  of  the  writers  are  revealed,  they  are 
neither  approved  nor  cmdemned  by  the  fact  that  the  Endow- 
ment causes  them  to  be  published.  For  example,  the  publica- 
tion of  a  work  describing  the  attitude  of  various  socialistic 
bodies  on  the  subject  of  peace  and  war  implies  nothing  as  to  the 
views  of  the  cheers  of  the  Endowment  on  the  subject  of  social- 
ism; neither  will  the  issuing  of  a  work,  describing  the  attitude 
of  business  classes  toward  peace  and  war,  imply  any  agreement 
or  disagreement  on  tlie  part  of  the  officers  of  the  Endowment 
with  the  views  of  men  of  these  classes  as  to  a  protective  policy, 
the  ccmtrol  of  mcmopoly,  or  the  regulation  of  banking  and  cur- 
rency. It  is  necessary  to  know  how  such  men  generally  think 
and  feel  on  the  great  issue  of  war,  and  it  is  one  of  the  purposes 
of  the  Endowment  to  promote  studies  which  will  accurately 
reveal  their  attitude.  Neither  it  nor  its  Committee  of  Research 
vouches  for  more  than  that  the  works  issued  by  them  contain 
such  facts ;  that  their  statements  concerning  them  may  generally 
be  trusted,  and  that  the  works  are,  in  a  scientific  way,  of  a  quality 
that  entitles  them  to  a  reading. 

John  Bates  Clark, 
Director. 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE 

The  following  work  on  the  "Economic  Effects  of  the  War 
upon  Women  and  Children  in  Great  Britain"  by  Mrs.  Irene 
Osgood  Andrews,  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  American  Associa- 
tion for  Labor  Legislation,  is  the  second  in  the  series  of  pre- 
liminary war  studies  undertaken  by  the  Endowmentn^ST 
Andrews'  monograph  is  a  sympathetic  study  of  the  situation  by 
one  who  has  long  been  familiar  with  working  conditions  of 
women  and  children  in  this  country  and  abroad  and  the  methods 
undertaken  for  their  improvement.  The  author  points  out  the 
difficulties  and  evil  results  of  the  hasty  influx  of  women  and 
children  into  industrial  fields  vacated  by  men  who  had  gone  into 
the  army,  but  reaches  the  conclusion  that  on  the  whole  the  per- 
manent effects  are  likely  to  be  good.  Such  a  conclusion  by  an 
author  whose  sympathies  with  laboring  women  and  children  are 
deep  ^d  whose  outlook  is  broad  is  hopeful  and  cheering. 

In  the  opinion  of  the  editor,  Mrs.  Andrews  has  done  her 
country  a  service  in  preparing  this  mwic^fraph,  for  her  recital  of 
the  difficulties  and  evils  of  the  British  readjustment  will  enable 
our  people  to  meet  the  same  crisis  when  it  comes  upon  us,  as  it 
surely  will  if  the  war  continues,  in  the  light  of  the  experience 
of  our  allies.  If  we  go  about  the  matter  intelligently  in  the 
light  of  this  study  we  should  be  able  to  avoid  some  of  the  diffi- 
culties and  evils  of  British  experiences  in  this  matter  and  open 
the  way  for  a  larger  industrial  life  to  women,  while  maintaining 
and  indeed  even  improving,  as  we  should,  the  conditions  under 
which  they  are  called  upon  to  work  and  live. 

David  Kinlev, 
Editor. 


I    '  I 


CONTENTS 


I    Introductory  Summary  j 

Increase  in  numberi j 

Wages    "_      ^ 

Recruiting  new  workers 4 

Removal  of  trade  union  restrictions 6 

Control  of  labor  by  the  Munitions  Acts f, 

Safety,  health,  and  comfort 7 

Effects  of  war  work g 

After-war  pi  oblems   9 

The  American   situation U 

IX    Work  of  Women  and  Children  before  the  War M 

Statistics  of  women's  work 14 

Legislative  protection   for  women ig 

Child  labor j7 

Laws  affecting  children's  employment 19 

III  FnsT  Months  of  the  War 21 

The  unemployment  crisis 2? 

Organization  for  aiding  unemployed  women 24 

IV  Increase  IN  the  Employment  OF  Women 29 

First  year  of  war 30 

Second  year  of  war 35 

Third  year  of  war 37 

V    Organized  Efforts  to  RECRrix  Women's  Labor 44 

Munitions  work  44 

The  "Treasury  Agreement" 4^ 

The  Munitions  Acts  4jj 

Organization   for  "dilution"  under  the  Munitions  Act?  ...  49 

Propaganda  by  the  Ministry  of  Munitions 52 

"Dilution"  in  other  industries  by  trade  union  agreement...  54 

Other  me.sures  to  increase  substitution— Industrial 56 

Other  met  'ures  to  increase  substitution— Trade  and  com- 
merce     g2 

Campaign  for  substitution  in  agriculture 63 

Summary  g7 

VI    Source  of  Additional  Women  Workers fig 

Transfers  from  non-essential  industries 6g 

Transfers  between  districts 71 

Care  of  transferred  workers 73 


CONTENTS 


VII    TiAiNiNc  FOR  War  WoiK 75 

VIII    WoMiK  AJCD  TH«  Trade  U»io»s 79 

IX  Control  OF  Women  WoRMRii  UNDER  THE  MuKiTioKs  Acts....    82 

Prohibition  of  ttrikes  and  lockouts 82 

"Leaving  certificates"  '[^  g^ 

Munitions  tribunals  '..'.'.'.  87 

X  Wages  gp 

Governmental  wage  regulation  in  the  munitions  industry. ...    89 

Wage  fixing  for  "women  on  men's  work" 92 

Wage  fixing  for  "women  not  on  men's  work" 92 

Revision  of  award  for  "women  on  men's  work" 95 

Extension   of   award   covering   "work  not   recognized   as 

men's  work" gg 

General  increases  in  the  awards 97 

Wage  awards  for  women  woodworkers gg 

Criticism  of  governmental  wage  fixing  in  munitions  work..    99 

Wage  fixing  by  the  trade  boards 101 

Wage  changes  under  trade  union  agreements 102 

Wages  in  other  trades 104 

The  equal  pay  question los 

XI    Hours  of  Work m 

The  demand  for  overtime ni 

Women's  working  I.o-.rs  in  191S H4 

Later  developments  H9 

XII    Safety,  Heawh,  and  Comfort 128 

Organized  efforts  139 

Welfare  supervision   jjg 

Attack  on  the  welfare  movement 138 

Improvements  in  conditions  outside  the  factory 140 

XIII  Effects  of  the  War  on  the  Employment  of  CnaoREN 145 

Extension  of  employment '. 145 

Relaxation  of  child  labor  and  compulsory  education  laws..   146 
Changes  in  occupations  of  boys  and  girls 151 

Wages ; ;";;  ,53 

Hours  J53 

Safety,  health,  and  con.tort 157 

Effects  of  war  work  on  boys  and  girls 159 

Position  of  working  boys  and  girls  after  the  war 162 

XIV  Effects  of  War  Work  on  Women 164 

Health  of  women  war  workers I64 

Effects  of  night  work jga 

Effects  of  war  work  on  home  life 170 

Development  of  personality  in  women  war  workets 172 

Appendices  j79 


ECONOMIC   EFFECTS  OF  THE   WAR  UPON 

WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN 

GREAT  BRITAIN 


CHAPTER  I 

Introductory  Summary 

Under  the  conditions  of  modem  warfare  the  industrial  army 
in  factory,  field,  and  mine  is  as  essential  to  national  success  as 
the  soldiers  in  the  trenches.  It  is  estimated  that  from  three  to 
five  workers  are  necessary  to  keep  a  single  soldier  at  the  front 
completely  equipped.  Accordingly  it  is  not  surprising  that  Great 
Britain  during  three  years  of  warfare  saw  what  was  little  short 
of  an  industrial  revolution  in  order  to  keep  up  the  supply  of 
labor,  to  heighten  the  workers'  efficiency,  and  to  secure  their  co- 
operation. No  changes  were  more  interesting  and  important  than 
those  which  concerned  working  women   .jid  children. 

Increase  in  Numbers 

Upon  women  and  children  fell  much  of  the  great  burden  of 
keeping  trade  and  industry  active  and  of  supplying  war  demands 
when  several  millions  of  men  were  taken  away  for  military 
service.  "Without  die  work  of  the  women  the  war  could  not 
have  gone  on,"  said  representatives  of  the  British  Ministry  of 
Munitions  while  in  New  York  in  November,  1917.  Before  the 
increased  demand  was  felt,  however,  the  dislocation  of  industry 
during  the  first  few  months  of  war  brought  far  more  sufTering 
to  women  workers  than  to  men.  In  September,  1914,  over  40 
per  cent  of  the  women  were  out  of  work  or  on  short  time.  The 
"luxury"  trades,  which  employed  a  large  proportion  of  women, 
were  most  severely  aflfected,  and  the  women  could  not  relieve 


ECONOMIC  BFPECTS  Of  THE  WAt 


il 

it 


the  situation  by  enlisting  as  the  men  did.  The  pre-war  level  of 
employment  was  not  reached  until  April,  1915.  Between  that 
date  and  July,  1917,  the  number  of  females  gainfully  occupied 
increased  by  more  than  1,000,000  over  the  number  at  work 
in  July,  1914. 

It  is  more  difficult  to  ascertein  the  exact  increase  in  the  num- 
ber of  working  children  and  young  perswis  under  eighteen,  but 
apparently  irore  children  left  school  for  work  directly  at  the  end 
of  the  compulsory  educaticm  period  and  more  were  illegally  em- 
ploy-d.  In  addition  in  August.  1917,  Mr.  Herbert  Fisher,  presi- 
dent of  the  Board  of  Education,  admitted  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons that  in  the  past  three  years  some  600,000  children  under 
fourteen  had  been  "put  prematurely  to  work"  through  the  relaxa- 
tion of  child  labor  and  compulsory  school  laws.  The  earlier  ex- 
emptions, statistics  of  which  have  been  published,  were  almost 
entirely  for  agriculture,  but  judging  from  Mr.  Fisher's  state- 
ment a  con.siderable  number  of  exemptions  were  made  for  min- 
ing and  munitions  work  during  the  third  year  of  war. 

One  of  the  most  notable  effects  of  the  war  was  the  number  of 
occupaticHis  which  women  entered  for  the  first  time,  until,  in  the 
winter  of  1916-1917,  it  could  be  said  hat  "there  are  practically 
no  traces  in  which  some  process  of  substitution  [of  women  for 
men]  has  not  taken  place."  .\ccording  to  official  figures, 
1.392,000  females  were  taking  men's  places  in  July,  1917. 

During  the  first  year  of  war,  however,  women  took  men's 
places  for  the  most  part  in  transportation,  in  retail  trade,  and 
in  clerical  work  rather  than  in  manufacturing.  In  factory  work, 
while  some  women  were  found  to  be  undertaking  processes 
slightly  above  their  former  level  of  skill  in  establishments  where 
they  had  long  been  employed,  the  most  general  change  was  a 
transfer  from  slack  industries  .  >  fill  the  expanding  demands  of 
firms  making  war  equipment.  There  women  were  employed  in 
the  same  kinds  of  work  they  had  carried  on  before  the  war.  The 
rush  into  the  munitions  industry,  where  women  engaged  in  both 
"men's"  and  "women's"  work,  was  one  of  the  most  important 
features  of  the  second  year  of  war.     While  a  few  additional 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  3 

women  had  begun  to  be  taken  <mi  very  early  in  the  war,  the  in- 
creases were  not  large  until  the  autumn  of  1915  and  early  winter 
•  1916.  During  1915-1916  also  a  decline  was  first  noticed  in 
ihe  number  of  women  in  domestic  service,  in  the  printing  trades, 
and  in  such  typical  "women's"  trades  as  confectioner)-  and 
laundry  work. 

In  the  third  year  of  war  the  substitution  of  women  for  men 
on  a  large  scale  was  extended  from  munitions  to  numerous  :>taple 
Industrie-  having  a  lesa  direct  connection  with  the  war.  In  many 
cases,  of  course,  the  women  did  not  do  precisely  the  same  work 
as  their  masculine  predecessors.  Et^pecially  in  the  engineering 
trades  almost  an  industrial  revolution  occurred  between  1914 
and  1917.  Skilled  processes  were  subdivided,  and  automatic 
machinery  was  introduced,  all  the  changes  tending  toward 
greater  specialization  and  the  elimination  of  the  need  of  all  round 
craft  skill.  Early  in  the  war  it  was  generally  considered  that 
women  were  not  as  efficient  as  men  except  cwi  routine  and  repeti- 
tion work.  But  as  the  women  gained  experience  it  was  observed 
that  more  and  more  of  them  were  undertaking  the  whole  of  a 
skilled  man's  job,  and  the  testimony  as  to  relative  efficiency,  on 
work  within  a  woman's  strength,  became  far  more  favorable.  It 
is  conceivable  that  the  changes  in  the  kinds  of  work  carried  on 
by  women  may  cause  an  entirely  new  conception  of  the  proper 
vocational  education  for  girls. 

In  the  summer  of  1916  there  was.  for  the  first  time,  a  marked 
increase  in  the  number  of  women  agricultural  workers.  Women 
even  engaged  in  work  ordinarily  a  part  of  soldiers'  duties.  Be- 
sides thousands  of  military  nurses,  a  special  corps  of  women 
under  semi-military  discipline  was  recruited  for  work  as  clerks, 
cooks,  cleaners,  chauffeurs,  and  mechanics  behind  the  lines  in 
France.  In  October,  1917,  10,000  recruits  a  month  were  wanted 
for  this  special  corps,  "^he  women  were  able  to  take  up  their 
new  lines  of  v/ork  with  surpnsingly  little  formal  training,  the 
chief  exceptions  being  short  practical  courses  for  farm  workers 
and  semi-skilled  munition  makers. 


♦  BCOWOMIC  BmCTS  Of  THB  WAR 

Changei  in  the  work  done  by  children  were  considerably  dif- 
ferent fcr  girls  and  for  boys.  For  girls  the  choice  of  occupa- 
tions  widened  much  as  for  adult  women.  But  for  boys,  though  a 
few  received  earlier  promotion  to  skilled  men's  work  than  would 
wiinarily  have  been  the  case,  on  the  whole  training  for  skilled 
trades  declined.  With  the  men  drawn  into  the  war  and  with 
the  increasing  coat  of  living,  it  was  natural  that  an  increase  should 
take  place  in  the  number  of  child  street  traders,  and  in  the  num- 
ber  of  children  working  outside  school  hours. 

Wages 
Under  war  conditions  the  wages  of  both  women  and  children 
were  raised,  some  of  the  largest  gains  being  made  by  boy  and 
girl  mumtion  makers.    The  smallest  rise  seems  to  have  occurred 
m  the  unregulated,  so-called  "women's  tra/les."  like  laundry 
woric.     The  trade  boards  made  a  number  of  increases  in  the 
mdustries  within  their  jurisdiction,  but  the  changes  barely  kept 
pace  with  the  rising  cost  of  living.    The  economic  position  of  the 
women  who  took  men's  places    was  undoubtedly  improved, 
though,  even  taking  into  account  differences  in  experience  and 
efficiency  and  the  numerous  changes  in  industrial  method,  the 
plane  of  economic  equality  between  the  two  sexes  was  not  gen- 
erally attained.    The  government  had  the  power  to  fix  women's 
wages  on  munitions  work,  and  in  so  doing  it  accepted  the  "equal 
pay"  principle  and  set  comparatively  hi^  standards.     Where 
other  industries  were  covered  by  trade  union  agreements,  women 
in  most  instances  received  "equal  pay,"  but  in  the  remaining  cases 
of  substitution,  for  instance  in  agriculture,  though  considerable 
increases  were  gained,  the  men's  rates  were  by  no  means  reached. 

Recruiting  Nezv  Workers 

It  is  of  interest  to  leam  how  England  secured  women  workers 

to  meet  the  demands  of  war.    The  women  came  for  the  most  part 

from  three  different  groups.     First,  workers  changed  from  the 

low  paid  "women's  trades"  and  various  slack  lines  of  work  io 


•^'^ 


WOMIW  AND  CHItJ>iaN  IN  ORBAT  ■RITAIN 


tnunitioiM  and  different  kinds  of  "men's  work."  Second,  the 
additional  women  workeri  were  mainly  the  wiv«-s  and  other 
members  of  workingmen's  families,  most  of  the  married  women 
having  worked  before  marri»»ge.  Soldiers'  wives  often  found 
their  separation  allowances  ini>uffict*nt.  In  general  bo'h  patri- 
otic motives  and, the  rising  cost  of  living  tmdoubtedly  played  a 
part  in  sending  these  women  and  many  young  boys  and  girls 
into  industry.  Finally,  a  comparatively  small  number  of  women 
of  a  higher  social  class  entered  clerical  woric,  agriculture,  and 
the  munitions  factories,  in  many  instances  in  response  to  patri- 
otic appeals. 

Many  of  the  women  and  children  were  recruited  through  the 
acti\'ities  of  local  representative  "Women's  War  Employment 
Committees"  and  "County  Agricultural  Committees,"  formed  by 
the  government,  und  working  in  close  cooperation  with  the  na- 
tional employment  exchanges.  A  large  number  of  women,  about 
5,000  a  month  in  the  winter  of  1917,  and  even  a  good  many 
young  boys  and  girls  were  sent  through  the  exchanges  from 
their  homes  to  work  at  a  distince.  According  to  representatives 
of  the  Ministry  of  Munitions,  the  securing  of  their  well  being 
outside  the  factory  under  such  circumstances  was  the  most  serious 
problem  connected  with  their  increased  employment.  Efforts  to 
provide  housing,  recreation,  and  improved  transit  facilities  were 
at  first  in  the  hands  of  the  voluntary  committees,  but  later  it 
proved  necessary  for  the  Ministry  to  appoint  "outside  welfare 
officers"  to  supplement  and  coordinate  this  work.  The  "hostels" 
with  their  large  dormitories  and  common  sitting  rooms  which 
were  frequently  opened  in  munition  centers  for  the  women 
proved  unsatisfactory  because  of  the  rules  required  and  the  diffi- 
culties of  maintaining  necessary  discipline.  In  an  attempt  to 
solve  thv  housing  problem  the  government,  in  the  summer  of 
1917,  was  forced  to  enact  a  measure  making  compulsorv-  the 
"billeting"  of  munition  makers  with  families  living  in  the  district. 


'6  RcoNouic  nmcifk  or  the  war 

Rtmovai  of  Tradt  Union  Rtstrictions 
Trade  union  mtrictions  on  the  kinds  of  work  women  were  al- 
lowed to  perform  were  set  aside  for  the  war  period  and  "dilu- 
tion" was  made  widely  possible  by  the  munitions  acts,  in  the 
case  of  munitions  of  war,  and  by  agreemcnu  between  employers 
and  employe^  in  n«ny  staple  industries.  In  all  cases  the  agree- 
ments inci  .ed  clauses  intended  to  safeguard  the  standard  wage 
rate  and  to  restore  the  men's  places  and  the  trade  union  rules 
afte.-  the  war.  Even  where  the  munition  acts  gave  the  govern- 
ment power  to  force  "dilution"  it  proceeded  mainly  throu^  con- 
ferences and  agreements. 

Officials  of  the  Ministr>'  of  Munitions  believe  that  whether  in 
England  or  America,  the  subutitution  of  women  or  any  other  im- 
portant change  intended  to  increase  production  can  only  proceed 
peacefully  if  labor's  consent  and  cooperation  are  secured.  They 
believe  also  that  provisions  to  safeguard  labor  standards  are 
essential  to  gain  such  cooperation,  and  that  anything  in  the  nature 
of  coercion  or  a  "labor  dictat.wship"  will  necessarily  fail  to  reach 
the  desired  aim  of  enlarged  output. 

Control  of  Labor  by  the  Munitions  Acts 
Considerable    irritation    was   aroused    among   the    munition 
makers,  both  men  -  ,d  women,  by  the  ccwitrol  exercised  over  them 
through  certain  features  of  the  munitions  acts.     Strikes  were 
forbidden  an<'.  provision  for  compulsory  arbitration  was  made. 
Special  munitions  tribunals  were  set  up  which  mig^t  impose  fines 
tor  breaches  of  workshop  discipline.    In  order  to  stop  the  need- 
less shifting  from  job  to  job  which  was  hampering  production, 
a  system  of  "leaving  certificates"  was  established.    Workers  who 
left  their  previous  positions  without  such  cards,  which  could  be 
secured  frwn  employers  or  from  the  tribunals  only  under  specified 
cwiditions,  might  not  be  employetl  elsewhere  for  six  weeks.    The 
clearance  certificate  system  was  obviously  open  to  abuses,  espe- 
cially during  the  first  few  months  of  its  operation,  before  a 
number  o^      feguards  were  introduced  by  the  first  mtmitions 


WOMF.N   AND  CHII.I>KKN   IN  (iHKAT  UMITAIN  7 

amendment  act,  in  January,  1916.  It  created  so  mnch  tmreai 
among  the  workers  that  it  was  aljulisheil  in  Octolwr,  l*>t7.  The 
British  govemment't  experience  with  thew  feature»  of  the  muni- 
tions acts  which  approach  nearest  to  the  conscription  of  labor 
illustrates  the  difficulties  attendant  upon  Mich  devices  for  olAain- 
ing  niaximnm  output  without  interruption. 

Safety,  Health,  and  Comfort 

The  effect  of  the  war  on  the  working  hours  of  Knglish  wcMnen 
and  children  centers  in  the  changes  made  in  the  restrictive  legin- 
lation  in  force  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war.  This  legislation  for- 
l>ade  night  and  Sunday  work,  and  hours  in  excess  of  ten  and  a 
half  daily  and  sixty  weekly  in  non-textile  factories;  and  ten 
daily  and  fifty-five  weekly  in  textile  factories.  IJut  from  the 
beginning  of  the  war  up  to  the  latter  part  of  1915  hours  were 
lengthened  and  night  ai .;  Sunday  work  became  frequent,  both 
by  means  of  special  onlers  from  the  factory  inspectton  depart- 
ment and  also  in  defiance  of  the  law.  Two  special  govern- 
mental committees  were  finally  created  to  deal  with  the  unsatis- 
factory situation.  The  scientific  studies  by  one  of  them,  the 
Health  ot  Munition  Workers  Committee,  on  the  unfavornble 
eflfects  of  long  hours  on  output,  were  a  determining  factor  in 
securing  .t  virtual  return  to  pre-war  standards  of  hours.  En- 
glish experience  should  prove  to  .America  the  wisdom  of  main- 
taining unchanged  the  laws  limiting  hours  of  women  and  chil- 
dren, if  production  is  to  reach  its  maximum. 

The  introduction  of  women  into  factories  and  offices  for  the 
first  time  often  led  to  the  making  of  .special  provisions  for  their 
safety,  health,  and  comfort.  In  the  interests  of  output,  the  Min- 
ister of  ^!unitions  fostered  such  developments  in  the  establish- 
ments under  his  control,  encouraged  the  engagement  of  "wel- 
fare supervisors"  for  women,  girls,  and  boys,  and  gave  sfieciai 
attention  to  the  well  tieing  of  munition  makers  outside  the  fac- 
tory. The  Ministry  allowed  owners  of  controlled  establishments 
to  deduct  the  cost  of  special  welfare  provisions  for  women,  such 


•■  ■CONOMtC  imCTt  07  TMK  WAR 

M  WMh  roomt  wid  mt  roonu,  from  what  would  othcrwiw  be 
taken  by  the  exceu  profit  ux.  It  provided  hooiinf  Mcommod*. 
tioiu  on  .  l*rB.  •c.le-for  eO.aX)  workeri.  it  is  uid.  between 
July.  1915,  and  July.  1916.  and  toUidiied  limilar  projecu  by 
citie.  and  private  organtiations.  That  the  war  brought  increaMd 
recognition  of  the  imporunce  of  meaturet  for  lafcty.  health,  and 
comfort  wa«  evident  from  the  patuge  of  a  law  in  August.  1916. 
empowering  the  Home  Office  to  make  special  regulations  for  ad- 
ditional "welfare"  pnnisions  in  factories. 

EfffctM  of  War  Work 

It  was  hardly  possible  to  judge  the  full  effects  of  war  work  on 
women  and  children  by  Xovember.  1917.  Among  women,  while 
indiv  '.ual  cases  of  overfatigue  undoubtedly  existed,  signs  of  in- 
jury to  health  were  not  generally  apparent.  The  effects  when  the 
excitement  of  war  work  is  over  and  the  strain  relaxed  were  still 
to  be  reck6ned  with,  however.  Higher  pay.  which  meant  warmer 
clothing,  sometimes  better  housing,  and  especially  better  food 
was  believed  to  be  an  important  factor  in  counteracting  injury 
to  health.  It  doubtless  accounted  for  the  improvement  in  health 
which  was  nut  infrequently  noted  in  women  entering  munitions 
work  from  low  paid  trades  and  which  is  a  sa.llv  significant  com- 
mentary on  their  former  living  conditions.  Among  boy  muni- 
tion makers  the  evidences  of  overwork  and  a  decline  in  health 
were  much  more  i<triking. 

Particularly  in  the  crowded  munition  centers,  home  life  suf- 
fered on  account  of  the  war.  Overcrowding,  long  hours  spent  in 
the  factory  and  in  traveling  back  and  forth,  an  increase  in  the 
work  of  mothers  with  young  families,  the  absence  of  husbands 
and  fathers  on  military  service,  and  the  more  frequent  depar- 
tur  from  home  of  young  boys  and  girls  for  woric  at  a  distance 
all  contributed  to  the  undermining  of  the  home. 

Yet  even  the  additional  responsibility  placed  on  many  women 
by  the  absence  of  t'-ir  men-folk  seenis  to  have  been  one  of  the 
stimulating  influences  whi<  h  are  said  in  three  vears  of  war  to 


WOMEN  AND  CHIUMIN  IN  ONBAT  RRITAIN 


have  "t''  itformed"  the  pvriomlity  of  the  average  factory 
womaa  At  a  claia,  they  have  frown  more  confident,  more  in- 
dependent, more  interested  in  impersonal  iieuet.  The  more 
varied  and  responsible  poiitions  opened  to  women,  the  public's 
appreciation  of  their  services,  their  many  contacts  with  the  gov- 
emment  on  account  of  war  legislation  alio  helped  brini^  about 
the  change,  which  promises  to  be  one  of  the  most  significant  of 
the  war. 

Among  the  younger  worlccrs,  on  the  contnr}-,  it  was  feared  that 
the  relaxation  of  discipline,  unusual  wages,  kng  hours  of  work, 
the  frequent  closing  of  Khools  and  boys'  clubs,  and  the  general 
excitement  of  war  time  were  producing  a  deterioration  in  charac- 
ter. "Had  we  set  out  with  the  deliberate  intention  of  manufactur- 
ing juvenile  delinquents,  could  we  have  done  so  in  any  more  cer- 
tain way?"  said  Mr.  Cecil  Leeson,  secretary  of  the  Howard  Asso- 
ciation of  London.  A  marked  increase  in  juvenile  delinquency 
was  noted,  particularly  among  boys  of  eleven  to  thirteen,  the 
a^es  for  which  3<:.iool  attendance  laws  have  been  relaxed  and 
premati.      employment  allowed. 


After-Wwr  Problems 

The  fact  that  the  women  who  took  men's  places  did  not,  on 
the  whole,  d>tain  men's  wages,  though  they  were  by  no  means 
always  less  efficient,  promises  to  create  one  of  the  most  serious 
of  the  difficulties  likely  to  arise  after  the  war  emergency  is  over. 
The  »..  -er  m  that  the  women  substitutes  may  be  used  to  under- 
cut the  men's  wage  rates,  and  thus  undermine  the  standard  of 
living  of  a  large  part  of  the  industrial  population.  The  indus- 
trial reorganization  which  has  occurred,  involving,  as  it  does, 
greater  specialization  auG  subdivision  of  skilled  processes  and 
decreasing  the  value  of  craft  skill,  facilitates  their  utilizat'-^'i  in 
this  way. 

Other  important  post-war  probicitis  include  those  of  the  chil- 
dren wliom  the  war  forced  preniaturely  into  employment,  and  of 
the  industrial  dislocation  which  will  occur  when  demands'  for  war 


!!i, 


10 


ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 


of  soldiers  will  be  seeking  employment,  half  the  people  now  at 
Zt  :l:"i°  '"'  "^"  ^'^  '''^  -«>  ^-  ^-^c-  o1 
Uie  terms  of  the  agreements  with  the  unions  are  carried  out.  most 
of  the  women  stibst.tutes  in  staple  trades  must  be  dismis  ed  to 

S^esTol  L""^"-.  '''^  "'^^"  ^'''^  "-*  ^l*-  -en's 

places  form  a  problem,  therefore,  whether  they  hold  their  jobs 
or  are  dismissed^  And  while  a  considerable  nLber  of  womt 
are  hkely  to  withdraw  from  industry  at  the  end  of  the  war  T 

torn  that  for  a  generation  the  number  of  women  workers  will 
remain  larger  than  before  the  conflict 

Fortunately  the  English  government,  and  also  private  indi- 
viduals are  giving  much  attention  to  plans  for  "reconsTructron- 
after  the  war,  which  shall  not  only  tide  over  the  transition  S 
but  put  the  relations  between  labor  and  capital  on  a  pennlJit^ 
.niproved  basis.  In  .lealing  with  th.  question  of  the  Tome'Tul 
sn tutes.  It  ,s  hoped  that  the  men's  unions  will  not  continue  thet 
policy  of  exclusion,  but  will  allow  the  women  to  enter  all  suitable 
occupations  and  the  appropriate  lalx^r  organizations,  thus  W 
.ng:  them  ,n  employment,  but  providing  machinery  to 7.'.^^ 

L  l?^'.'''''  '■'^"-     ''  "^  ^"^^^^^^d  f"«her  that  vvaTe 

rates  might  be  determined  through  an  extension  of  trade  h^art 
m  the  unorganized  industries  and  through  the  creation  of  jo  n 
represemanve  industrial  councils  in  the  organized  trades     ' 
In  behah  of  working  children  a  measure  was  introduced  in 

.:''~  it  '"^  ''■'•  ^^'"'^'"^  ^-"^"'-^  ^"^^  --  - 
ance  until  tie  age  of  tourteen  without  exception,  and  continue- 

;raS:;'e:;;t:f '-  ^  -'  ^-- — ->e  JpT 

Governmental  schemes  for  dealing  with  unemployment  during 
the  period  of  readjustment  immediately  after  the  war  we  eTaWv 
well  advanced  in  November,   1917.     A  law  passed  July     9  6 
extending  unemployment  insurance  to  most  Munition  wo  k  ri 
over  the  ,.nod  of  war  and  readjustment  promised  worn  n 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


11 


workers  the  largest  measurie  of  direct  help  during  the  time  of 
transition. 

Schemes  for  extended  and  improved  maternity  protection  are 
being  brought  forward,  the  losses  of  war  having  stimulated  in- 
terest in  methods  of  human  conservation.  The  unusual  strain  to 
which  women  workers  have  heeri  subjected  during  the  war  makes 
such  plans  an  important  element  in  any  complete  program  of 
"reconstruction." 


The  Atiwrican  Situation 

The  American  situation  was  too  undefined  in  November,  1917, 
and  reliable  information  was  far  too  scanty  to  permit  a  detailed 
study  such  as  could  be  made  of  English  conditions.  Yet  such 
facts  as  were  available  suggested  interesting  parallels  to  the  trend 
of  evtius  in  England.  .\merica's  entrance  into  the  world  war 
was  not  the  occasion  of  a  serious  unemployment  crisis  for  the 
reason  that  industrial  readjustment  on  a  war  basis  had  largely 
taken  place  following  the  depression  of  1914-1915.  The  de- 
mand for  women  for  nmnitions  work  and  other  war  supplies  for 
the  Allies  became  active  by  the  summer  of  1915.  The  .American 
declaration  of  war  added  this  country's  demands  for  military 
equipment  while  it  accentuated  the  pr  '-war  scarcity  of  labor  by 
taking  from  industry  thousands  of  men  of  military  age.  Agents 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Labor,  who  were  placing 
women  on  government  contracts,  reiwrted  an  increased  demand 
for  them  on  army  uniforms,  shoes  and  other  leather  goods,  tents 
and  other  war  supplies,  liy  .\ugust,  1917.  As  in  England  at 
the  corresponding  perio<l  the  women  did  much  the  same  sorts  of 
work  they  had  undertaken  previous  to  the  war,  though  some- 
times, when  b^th  men  and  women  were  occupied  on  certain 
processes,  the     oportion  of  women  increased. 

While  the  newspapers  gave  much  publicity  to  cases  of  the  re- 
placement of  men  by  women  in  the  first  half-year  of  .American 
l>articipation  in  the  war,  it  is  probable  that  substitution  was  even 
less  extensive  than  in  Great  Britain  during  a  similar  period. 


12 


ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 


ill 


The  introduction  of  women  for  the  first  time  seemed  to  be  fairly 
Il!?r  m"^T  .'",'  ''1°P'^'"  """•*''°"  P'^^''  "  New  England 

c"  n?r^  ^H      ^h"'"  ''**"•  "  ™''^«^  ^^°P«  *'-«hout  the 
countiy.  and  m  the  automobile  factories  of  Detroit.    In  New 
York  City  women  elevator  operators  and  women  »-.nk  clerks 
attracted  considerable  public  attention.     In  many  other  cities 
however,  the  latter  had  long  been  common.     On  clerical  work 
and  in  retail  trade  women  seemed  to  take  over  men's  jobs  much 
less  often  than  they  did  in  England.    But  America  probably  had 
a  larger  proportion  of  women  woricers  in  these  lines  prior  to  the 
war  than  had  Great  Britain. 
Comparisons  in  regard  to  increases  in  child  labor  in  th-  two 

thTfeS  r.tV,!?'^''  '°  ""'^  '^""^'^ '"  '"^  United  States 
the  federal  child  labor  law  went  int.    effect  September  1.  1917 
The  measure  forbidding  interstate  commerce  in  articles  made  in 
factories  by  children  under  fourteen  was  said  to  result  in  a  de- 
cree of  diild  labor  in  states  having  laws  below  its  standards. 
But  states  having  higher  standards  and  therefore  not  affected  by 
he  f^eral  law  reported  an  increase  in  the  number  of  children 
living  school  for  work  at  the  eariiest  possible  opportunity     In 
addmon.  in  some  localities-without  special  legislative  sanction 
excqrt  in  New  York  state-school  laws  were  relaxed  to  allow 
children  to  leave  for  farm  work. 

Whether,  if  the  war  continues,  America  will  still  follow  En- 
gland s  example,  as  she  has  done  in  the  use  of  women  on  war 
equipment  and  in  the  begi.ni.ngs  of  substituting  them  for  men 
It  was  not  easy  to  say  in  November,  1917.    .\t  that  time,  when 
few  women  workers  were  unemployed,  a  good  many  men  were 
only  casually  employed.     And   the  population   of  the  United 
btates  contams  more  men  than  women,  whereas  in  England  the 
women  were  more  numerous  even  before  the  war.     In  Canada 
where.  like  the  United  States,  there  are  more  men  than  women." 
the  number  of  women  workers  increased  but  slightly  in  three 
years  of  war.  -^ 

But  in  the  event  of  any  extensive  replacement  of  men  bv 
women  m  America,  a  lowering  of  labor  standards  seems  even 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


13 


more  to  be  feared  than  it  was  in  England.  In  this  country  the 
process  of  substitution  has  thus  far  been  practically  unregulated 
either  by  the  government  or  by  union  agreement,  and  already 
claims  have  been  made  that  vtromen  have  been  hired  for  men's 
work  not  because  of  any  real  scarcity  of  workers,  but  to  lower 
wage  rates  or  to  break  down  labor  organizations. 
.  The  successful  cooperation  between  local  rep  tentative  com- 
mittees and  public  employment  bureaus  in  placing  women  war 
workers  in  England  is  particularly  suggestive  for  the  United 
States,  where  the  greater  distances  make  the  problem  of  trans- 
ferring woilters  more  difficult  than  in  England.  Unfortunately, 
America  has  not,  as  yet,  as  adequate  a  system  of  public  employ- 
ment bureaus  as  the  United  Kingdom.  The  United  States  wiil 
be  forced  to  create  sucl.  a  system  in  the  near  future,  if  problems 
both  of  mobilizing  and  demobilizing  war  workers  are  to  be 
handle*       th  any  approach  to  efficiency. 


CHAPTER  II 
Work  of  Women  and  ChUdren  before  the  Great  War 

Statistks  of  Women's  Work 

To  understand  the  effect  of  the  Great  War  on  the  work  of 
women  and  chddren.  it  is  necessary  to  have  as  a  background  a 
pKture  of  the,r  place  in  industry  before  the  war.  As  in  otheJ 
moJemmdustnal  countries,  the  employment  of  women  and  of 
g^rls  and  boys  m  the.r  teens  had  long  been  an  important  factor  in 
the  work  hfe  of  the  English  people.  At  the  ti!ne  of  the  latest 
census  of  the  United  Kingdom  in  191 1.  nearly  6.000.000  "female, 
ten  years  of  age  and  over."  or  almost  a  third  of  the  total  number 

It     It?^'  ^^'  ^^^  "*"™^*1  ^  "gainfully  occupied- 

form  of  domestic"  pursuits :  53,000  worked  for  the  central  gov- 
ernment or  local  authorities;  41.S.000,  the  majority  of  whom 
were  teachers  or  nurses,  had  som.^  professional  occupation.  Food 

546,000  arid  there  were  120,000  female  agricultural  workers. 
The  great  bulk  of  the  rr  ..nd.T,  some  2,275.000.  were  found  in 
he  manufacturing  -•  .stries.  Here  again  the  principal  lines  of 
work  were  the  metal  trades,  with  93,000  females;  paper  and 
printmg.  with  148.000:  textiles,  with  938.000;  ^d  dress   with 

onl>  80.000  were  "working  employers."  and  313.000  were  "at 
work  for  their  own  account." 

While  in  England  and  Wales  in  the  thirty  years  froti  1881  to 
1911  a  special  study  of  the  census  figures  showed  that  the  pro- 
portion of  occupied  women  to  1,000  unoccupied  women  rose 
from  659  to  674,  over  a  fifty-year  period  the  relative  number 

numbm   w^rJ'^s'fi^i'fUQ'''''''''  "/i"*""/  Slalistics.  1915,  p.  307.    The  exact 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


15 


of  working  women  in  the  whole  female  p<ipulation  seemed 
to  have  fallen  slightly.'  Marked  declines  in  the  proportion  of 
females  in  "domestic"  occupations  an-!  in  the  dress  and  textile 
trades  were  not  entirely  balanced  by  smaller  increases  in  the 
proportions  in  professional  and  clerical  work,  non-textile  fac- 
tories, paper  and  printing,  and  food  and  lodging.  The  propor- 
tion of  girls  between  ten  and  fifteen  at  work  had  also  fallen.  The 
ai'thor  of  the  above  studies  believed  that  the  relative  decrease 
was  to  be  found  among  the  industrial  classes  and  that  it  was  due 
to  the  commencement  of  work  at  a  higher  age  and  to  a  some- 
what lessened  employment  of  married  women.  Recent  increases 
in  the  proportion  of  gainfully  occupied  females  carried  out  this 
theory,  since  they  were  found  largely  in  the  age  group  lietween 
sixteen  and  twenty-five.  Over  half  the  girls  of  these  ages  were 
at  work  in  1911,  and  70  per  cent  of  those  from  fifteen  to  twenty, 
whi  has  been  called  "the  most  occupied  age."  The  proportion 
of  these  young  workers  to  older  women  rose  considerably  in 
the  decade  from  1901  to  1911,  though  durin.^  the  same  period 
the  number  of  married  women  and  widows  at  work  increased 
from  917,000  to  1,091,202.  For  thirty  years  the  proportion  of 
men  to  women  workers  had  remained  practically  stationary,  be- 
ing 2.3  males  to  one  female  in  1881,  and  2.4  males  to  one  female 
in  1911.' 

Especially  in  industrial  occupations  women  had  been  largely 
confined  to  the  least  skilled  ard  lowest  paid  lines  of  work.  To  a 
deplorable  extent  they  had  been  the  "industrial  drudges  of  the 
community."  It  is,  for  instance,  officially  e.Hmated  that  out  of 
the  100,000  "home  workers."  whose  work  has  become  almost 
s}-nonymous  with  "sweating,"  three-quarters  were  women.  An 
estimate  by  the  English  economist,  Sidney  Webb,  of  the  wages 
of  adult  women  "manual  workers"  in  1912'  placed  their  average 

•Dorothy  Haynos,  "A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Occupations  of  \r,n  -nd 
Women.    Women's  Industrial  News.  Oct.  1913.  pp.  3<)S,  399. 

2  Margaret  G  Bondfield,  "The  Future  of  Women  in  Indu-trv."  f  abnur 
Year  Book,  1916,  p.  259.  •       '-""""'^ 

« Fabian  Society,  "The  War.  Women  and  Unemployment,"  Fnhian  Tract 
i\o.  lyS,  1915.  p.  5. 


I  ft    ! 


16 


ECONOMIC  EPFKCTS  OF  THE  WAR 


full  time  wedcly  earnings  at  lis.  7d.  ($2.78).  Making  allow- 
ance for  an  annual  loss  of  five  weeks  a  year  from  sickness,  unem- 
ployment, and  short  time— a  conservative  estimate — average 
weekly  earnings  throughout  the  year  would  be  about  10s.  10«4d. 
($2.61).  Only  17  per  cent  of  the  women  regularly  emj^oved 
were  believed  to  receive  more  than  15s.  ($3.60)  weekly,  and 
those  averaged  only  17s.  ($4.08)  for  a  full  time  week.  '  The 
average  full  time  wages  of  adult  male  manual  workers  were 
estimated  by  the  same  authority  at  25s.  9d.  ($6.18)  a  week. 

Legislative  Protection  for  Women 

Since  the  forties,  however,  much  special  legislative  protection 
had  been  extended  to  women  workers  mainly  throu^  the  fac- 
tory acts.      There  were  numerous  regulations  to  protect  their 
health  and  safety.     They  might  not  be  employed  in  cleaning 
moving  machinery,  nor  in  underground  mines,  nor  in  brass  cast- 
ing nor  in  certain  processes  exposed  to  lead  dust.     In  other  lines 
where  women  were  in  danger  of  contracting  lead  poisoning, 
they  were  allowed  to  work  only  if  found  in  good  cOTiditiwi 
through  monthly  medical  examination.    In  some  unhealthy  trades 
separate  rooms  for  meals  were  required  and  in  some  dangerous 
ones  women  were  obliged  to  cover  their  hair.    Separate  sanitary 
accommodations  were  compulsory  in  all  factories  and  woricshops. 
A  provision  which  had  proved  of  less  value  than  anticipated  be- 
cause of  the  difficuhies  of  enforcement,  forbade  a  factory  em- 
ployer knowingly  to  give  work  to  a  woman  within  four  wetks 
after  the  birth  of  her  child.    Wherever  women  were  employed  as 
"shop  assistants"  one  seat  was  to  be  provided  for  every  three 
assistants. 

For  factories  and  workshops  an  elaborate  code  limiting  work- 
ing hours  had  long  been  in  existence.  No  work  cm  Sunday  or 
at  night  was  allowed,  and  cmly  a  half  day  on  Saturday.  The 
maximum  weekly  hours  permitted  were  fifty-five  in  textile  fac- 
tories and  sixty  in  "non-textile  f-^ctories  and  workshops."  Daily 
hours  were  ten  in  the  former,  and  in  the  latter  ten  and  a  half 


WOMEN  AND  CHnj)REN  IN  GREAT  3RITAIN 


17 


with,  in  certain  cases,  a  limited  amount  of  overtime.    The  time 
to  be  allowed  for  meals  was  also  strictly  regulated. 

The  latest  phase  of  regulation  of  working  conditions,  the  fix- 
mg  of  minimum  wages,  was  begun  in  1909  by  the  trade  '  <ards 
act  Minimum  wage  rates  might  be  fixed*  for  trades  in  which 
wages  were  "exceptionally  low"  by  boards  made  up  of  employers, 
employes,  and  the  general  public.  Though  the  wage  fixing 
covered  both  men  and  women,  the  large  proportion  of  women 
employed  in  the  trades  first  regulated  made  the  law  of  special 
importance  in  a  consideration  of  women's  work.  The  trades 
covered  up  to  the  outbreak  of  the  war  included  certain  branches 
of  tailoring,  shirt  making,  some  forms  of  chain  making,  paper 
box,  sugar  confectionery  and  food  preserving,  and  certain  pro- 
cesses in  lace  finishing.  The  minimum  rates  fixed  for  experi- 
enced adult  women  in  these  trades  varied  from  about  2j4d.  (5 
cents)  to  3^id.  (7  cents)  an  hour,  amoimting  on  an  average  to 
approximately  14s.  a  week  ($3.36)  for  full  time  work.  The 
awards  appear  to  have  been  effective  in  raising  the  wages  of  a 
considerable  number  of  low  paid  women. 

Child  Labor 

In  matters  of  industrial  employment  the  English  recognized 
not  only  "children"  under  fourteen,  whose  employment  was  in 
great  part  prohibited,  but  also  a  special  class  of  "young  per- 
sons," whose  employment  was  subject  to  special  regulation. 
Boys  and  girls  under  eignteen  whom  the  law  allowed  to  work 
were  in  the  latter  group.  The  1911  census  returned  98,202  boys 
and  49,866  girls,  or  a  total  number  of  148,068  children  between 
ten  and  fourteen  years  as  "gainfully  employed"  in  Great  Brit- 
ain. Mr.  Frederic  Keeling,  an  authority  on  English  child  labor 
conditions,  believed,  however,  that  this  number  was  an  under- 
estimate because  it  failed  to  include  many  children  employed  out- 
side of  school  hours.  In  1912  he  set  the  number  of  working  chil- 
dren under  fourteen  in  the  United  Kmgdom  at  577.000,  of  whom 


'  "fi 


18 


F.CUNOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 


304,000  were  rmployed  outside  of  school  hours,  and  the  rest 
under  special  clauses  of  the  factory  and  education  acts.' 

The  great  majority  of  the  boys  and  girls  in  Great  Britain 
went  to  work  before  they  were  eighteen  years  old.  There  were 
1.246,069  male  "young  persons'  and  902.483  female  "young 
persons"  gainfully  employed  in  Great  Britain  in  1911.'  In  En- 
gland and  Uales  in  that  same  year  309.000  boys  and  241.000 
girls  of  seventeen  we.e  at  worij.  and  only  20,600  boys  and  87.- 
400  girls  of  tliat  agt  were  "unoccupied." 

The  1911  census  figures  covering  the  principal  lines  of  work 
in  which  girls  and  boys  under  eighteen  are  employed  bad.  in 
November,  1917,  been  published  only  for  England  and  Wales. 
For  boys  these  occupations  were  the  building  trades,  the  metal 
trades,  textiles,  agriculture,  mining,  outdoor  "domestic  service." 
messenger  and  poster  work— which  is  in  most  cases  a  "blind 
alley'  occupation— and  commercial  employment,  whereas  for 
giris  they  were  textiles,  clothing,  domestic  work,  and  commer- 
cial employment.  The  girls,  it  may  !«  not«l.  were  found  mainly 
in  the  same  kinds  of  work  as  were  adult  women. 

While,  as  has  lieen  previously  mentioned,  there  was  a  relative 
increase  in  the  number  of  young  working  girls  between  fifteen 
and  twenty,  the  number  of  woriting  children  under  fourteen  was 
falling  off.  There  were  97.141  boys  and  49,276  girls  under 
fourteen,  a  total  of  146,417.  employed  in  England  and  Wales  in 
191 1.  In  1901  working  boys  under  fourteen  numbered  138  000 
and  working  girls  70.000,  a  total  of  208.000.  In  Scotland  there 
were  but  1,600  young  children  of  these  ages  at  work  in  1911 
and  17.600  in  1901. 

Most  children  and  "young  persons"  were,  of  course,  receiving 
very  low  wages.  Sidney  Webb  estimated  the  average  earnings 
of  girl  manual  workers  under  eighteen  to  be  7s.  6d.  weekly 
($1.80)  and  those  of  boys  to  be  10s.  ($2.40). 

•  Frederic  Keelinsr.  Child  Labour  m  the  Umled  Kifqdom  1914.  p  xxviii 
=  These  Kirls  are  also  included  in  the  number  of  "females  rainfullv  occu- 
pied,   previously  discussed.    See  p.  14.  K<"niuiiy  occu- 


"l,   H'U-g  ,!».« 


WOMEN  AND  CIIII.DKEN   IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


19 


Laws  Affecting  Children's  Employment 

Th'  chief  forces  in  txringing  about  this  diniinutiun  of  child 
lalx>r  were,  naturally,  the  laws  forbidding  child  lalwr  and  re- 
fjuiring  compulsory  schcmling.  Children  were  r«|uired  to  attend 
school  unti!  they  were  fourteen  unless  they  were  thirteen  and 
could  secure  a  certificate  of  "proficiency"  or  of  regular  attend- 
ance. They  might  not  work  in  factories  until  they  had  com- 
pleted their  school  attendance,  except  that  "half  timers,"  girls 
and  boys  of  twelve,  might  work  not  more  than  thirty-three  hours 
a  week  and  were  compelled  to  go  to  school  half  the  time.  Most 
of  the  "half  timers"  were  found  in  the  Lancashire  cotton  mills. 

Children  under  eleven  might  not  sell  articles  on  the  street, 
boys  under  fourteen  might  not  work  in  coal  mines,  and  the  local 
authorities  might  forbid  all  work  by  children  under  fourteen, 
though  unfortunately  the  power  had  been  but  slightly  exercised. 

The  health  and  safety  regulations  affecting  "young  persons" 
under  eighteen  were  similar  to  those  for  women,  but  somewhat 
more  stringent.  The  lead  processes  which  were  forbidden  women 
were  also  forbidden  girls  and  boys  under  eighteen,  together  with 
a  few  other  very  unhealthy  trade».  Ip  others  where  women 
might  be  employed,  boys  and  girls  under  sixteen  were  forbidden 
to  work.  Children  under  fourteen  might  not  be  employed  "in  a 
manner  likely  to  be  dangerous  to  their  health  or  education." 

In  factories  and  workshops  the  same  regulation  of  daily  and 
weekly  hours,  night  and  Sunday  work,  applied  both  to  adult 
women  and  to  "young  persons."  In  addition  the  hours  of  boys 
under  sixteen  employed  in  mines  were  limited,  and  a  maximum 
of  seventy-four  hours  a  week  was  fixed  for  shop  assistants  under 
eighteen. 

The  minimum  rates  set  by  the  trade  boards  for  boys  nd  girls 
under  eighteen  generally  rose  year  by  year  according  to  age  from 
about  4s.  weeklj  at  fourteen  (96  cents)  to  10s.  ($2.40)  or  12s. 
($2.88)  at  seventeen.  Girls  with  the  necessary  experience  in  the 
trade  received  the  full  minimum  rate  for  women  at  eighteen 
years  of  age,  but  the  boys,  who  sometimes  began  at  a  higher 


20 


KcowoMic  irricTt  of  the  war 


T«te  than  the  firls.  did  not  mch  the  fuU  men's  rate  till  they 
were  twenty-one  or  more. 

Almo«  III  these  working  condition»-the  principtl  kinds  of 
work  women  and  children  were  doing,  the  rate  of  increase  in 
their  numbers,  their  wages,  and  the  legal  regulations  protect- 
ing  them— were  changed  during  three  years  of  the  world  war 


they 


CHAPTER  III 

Pirn  Months  of  th«  World  Wcr-Lsbor't  Attitud*  towwd 
th«  War— Untmploynwnt  among  Women  Workers 

August  4,  1914,  was  a  momentoui  day  for  the  working  women 
and  children  of  England.  On  that  date  the  nation  entered  the 
great  conflict  which  was  not  only  to  throw  their  men-folk  into 
military  service,  but  to  aflffct  their  own  lives  directly.  It  was  to 
alter  their  work  and  wages  and  to  come  near  to  overthrowing  the 
protective  standards  Iniilt  up  by  years  of  effort.  V^  nat  was  the 
attitude  of  the  women  and  of  organized  labor  in  general  toward 
the  war  and  the  industrial  revolution  which  it  brought  in  its 
train? 

Shortly  after  the  opening  of  hostilities  the  majority  of  the 
workers  swtmg  into  line  behind  the  government  in  support  of  the 
war,  despite  the  fact  that  the  organized  British  labor  movement 
had  earlier  subscribed  to  a  resolution  of  the  international  social- 
ist congress  that  labor's  duty  after  the  outbreak  of  any  war  was 
"to  intervene  to  bring  it  promptly  to  a  close." 

Indignation  at  the  invasion  of  Beig  am  was  apparently  the 
determining  factor  in  the  change  of  attitude.  The  Labour  Party 
did  not  oppose  the  government  war  measures.  It  joined  in  the 
parliamentary  recruiting  campaign,  and  in  the  "political  truce," 
by  which  it  was  agreed  that  any  vacancies  occurring  in  the  House 
of  Commons  should  lie  filled  by  the  party  iweviously  in  posses- 
sion without  a  contest.  On  August  24,  1914,  the  joint  board 
of  three  of  the  four  important  national  labor  bodies,  namely, 
the  Trades  Union  Congress,  the  General  Federation  of  Trade 
Unions  and  the  Labour  Party,  declared  an  "industrial  truce." 
moving  for  the  termination  of  all  existing  disputes,  and  for  an 
effort  to  settle  all  questions  arising  during  the  war  by  peaceful 
methods,  before  resorting  to  strikes  and  lockouts.  The  principal 
women's  labor  organizations  fell  in  with  what  may  be  called  the 


tm 


'  iSl 


22 


■CON     ic  BrrscTs  or  the  war 


.c  toward  the  war.  and  the  Independent 
Tod  aimokt  alone  in  continuing  to  advocate  an 


official  labor 
Labour  Vtrij 
early  peace. 

In  July.  1914.  ju.t  before  the  war.  BHti>h  businew  had  been  in 
a  reasonably  pro.per..u.  condition.    There  wa.  Kmiewhat  of  t 

trr  LT"  ,  ""^  °'  *'''^'  •"•'  *  «-«"«<Jer.ble  depreMi.>n 
in  the  cotton  mduitry.  but  on  the  whole  the  nate  of  trade  wa* 
good. 

The  first  effect  on  industry  of  the  outbreak  of  war  in 
August  was  an  abrupt  and  consi.lerablc  curtailment  of  pro- 
duc  ion.  Orders  Ix.tji  »,  home  an<l  foreign  trade  were  with- 
held  or  canceled,  large  numbers  of  factories  went  on  short 
time,  and  in  .1  number  of  cases  employes  were  provisionallv 
given  notice  of  discharge.' 

The  Unfmployment  Crisis 
That  the  crisis  of  unemployment  would  be  but  a  passing  phase 
sam  followed  by  unprecedented  industrial  activity,  seems  not  to 
have  been  anticipated.  "If  the  war  is  prolonged,  it  will  tax  alt 
the  powers  of  our  administrators  to  avert  the  most  widespread 
distress."  said  the  Fabian  Society.'  A  "Central  Committee  for 
the  Prevent!.^  and  Relief  of  Distress."  headed  bv  the  presi- 
dent of  the  I.xal  government  board  was  organized  as  early  as 
August  4;  Kxral  authorities  were  asked  to  form  similrr  io  ,. 
representative  conmiittces.  and  the  Prince  of  Wales  sent  out 
an  appeal  for  a  "Xational  Relief  Fun.l."  Plans  were  made  for 
starting  sp^ial  public  work,  a.l.litional  government  subsidies  to 
trade  unions  iming  unemployment  l)enefits  were  granted,  and 
the  \\  ar  0»«ce  l>roke  precednit  and  |)ennitted  the  subletting  of 
government  contracts  as  a  relief  measure  in  districts  where  there 
was  much  unemployment. 

In  the  industrial  depression  women  were  affected  far  more 
severely  than  men  and   for  a    -onsidcrahly  longer  time,     The 

olMer',^j'f:t!y  "'''''  "'  ''""''■  "'''"'"  ""  ""■  ■'"•"  "f  ^-A/".vm.„,  .„ 
^  '^Fabian  Society.  "The  War  and  the  Worker,,'  Fabian  Trad  No.  ,t6.  1914. 


WOMKN  AND  CniUWBN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


23 


I 


trade*  which  were  hardett  hit  wen  (or  the  moet  i^rt  thoec  in 
which  larfe  number*  of  women  were  employed. 

ThoM  Iradca  which  for  want  of  a  better  name  are  some< 
time*  called  "luxurj  des"— drcMmaking,  millinery,  Uoute 
making,  women's  fancy  and  children's  boot  and  shoe  making, 
the  silk  and  linen  trades,  cigar  and  cigarette  making,  the 
umbrella  trade,  confectionery  and  preserve  making,  cycle 
and  carriage  making,  the  jewelry  trade,  furniture  making 
and  French  polishing,  the  china  and  giasa  trades,  book  and 
sUtioncry  making,  as  well  as  printing— these  were  the  trades 
which  at  the  beginning  of  the  war  suffered  a  very  severe 
slump.  In  some  trades  a  shortage  of  raw  material  or  the 
loM  of  enemy  markets  only  added  to  the  general  dislocation 
.  Thus  the  shortage  of  sugar  caused  very  con- 
siderable unemployment  in  jam  preserving  and  confec- 
tionery. The  chemical  trade  was  affected  hy  the  cfimplete 
cessation  of  certain  commodities  from  Germany.  The  prac- 
tical closing  of  the  North  Sea  to  fishers  absolutely  brought 
to  a  close  the  occupation  of  those  thousands  of  women  on 
the  English  coast  who  follow  the  herring  round.  The  clos- 
ing of  the  Baltic  cut  off  the  supplies  of  flax  from  Russia 
upon  which  our  linen  trade  largely  depends.  .  .  . 
The  cotton  trade  was  especially  hit ;  before  the  war  a  period 
of  decline  had  set  in,  and  Luicashire  suffered  in  addition 
from  all  the  disadvantages  incidental  to  an  export  trade  in 
time  of  naval  warfare.  Casual  hfmseworkcrs  such  as  char- 
women and  office  cleaners  and  even  skilled  domestic  ser- 
vants, such  as  cooks,  found  themselves  out  of  employment 
owing  to  the  economies  which  the  public  was  making.  The 
unemployment  of  good  cooks,  however,  did  not  last  many 
weeks.' 

Nearly  half  the  total  number  of  women  in  industry  (44.'i-  per 
cent  or  1.100,000)  were  unemployed  or  r)n  short  time  in  Sep- 
tember, 1914,  while  among  men  workers  the  corresponding  figure 
was  only  27.4  per  cent.  The  provision  of  public  work  helped 
men  rather  than  women,  and  the  rush  of  enlistments  was  another 

>  Britiih  Aisociation  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  Credit.  Iitduttrv 
and  th*  War,  1915.  pp.  70,  71.  •" 


24 


ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 


inii>ortant  factor  which  helped  relieve  the  situation  for  working 
men.  Among  the  women,  on  the  contrary,  many  relatives  of  men 
who  had  gone  to  the  front  were  obliged  to  apply  for  worjt  for  a 
time,  since  separation  allowances  were  not  immediately  available. 
In  October,  1914,  when  enlistments  were  taken  into  account, 
the  net  decrease  in  the  number  of  male  industrial  workers  was 
only  6,500,  but  that  of  females  was  155,000.  By  December, 
when  80,000  fewer  women  were  employed  than  in  July,  and  girls 
in  dressmaking,  machine-made  lace,  silk  and  felt  hat  making,  pot- 
teries, printing,  and  fish  curing  had  not  yet  found  steady  work,' 
there  was  a  net  increase  in  the  employment  of  men  and  boys, 
and  a  shortage  of  skilled  men.  It  was  not  until  .^pril.  1915, 
eight  months  after  the  outbreak  of  war,  that  the  number  of 
women  employed  reached  pre-war  levels.' 

Organisation  for  Aiding  Unemployed  IVomen 

During  this  period  the  chief  agency  helping  unemployed  girls 
and  women  was  the  "Central  Committee  on  Women's  Employ- 
ment." The  committee  mainly  owed  its  origin  to  the  War 
Emergency  Workers'  National  Committee,  which  was  formed 
as  early  as  August  5,  1914,  to  protect  the  interests  of  the  workers 
during  the  war,  at  a  hastily  called  conference  of  nearly  all  the 
important  national  socialist  and  lalxjr  organizations.  In  the  first 
days  of  war  an  appeal  to  women  was  sent  out  in  the  name  of  the 
Queen  asking  them  to  make  garments  and  "comforts"  for  the 
troops.  The  workers'  national  committee  protested  against  such 
use  of  the  voluntary  labor  of  the  well-to-do  at  the  very  time  when 
thousands  of  working  women  in  the  sewing  and  allied  trades 
were  in  need  of  work. 

As  a  result  of  such  protests  an  announcement  appeared  in  the 
newspapers  of  August  17  to  the  effect  that  details  of  the  Queen's 
plan  for  raising  money  to  provide  schemes  of  work  for  unem- 
ployed women  would  soon  be  announced.    It  was  stated  that  "it 


'  Great  Britain  Home  Office,  Report  of  the  Chief  Inspector  nf  Factories  and 
Workshops  for  1914,  p.  34. 
2  See  .Appendix  A. 


f 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  2Fi 

is  the  wish  of  Her  Majesty  that  these  schemes  should  be  devised 
in  consultation  with  industrial  exiwrts  and  representatives  of 
working  class  wcwnen,"  and  that  the  aims  of  the  Queen's  needle- 
work guild  had  been  "misunderstood."  "\  inut-ry  aid  wa 
meant  to  supplement  and  not  to  suppla  :  |>aid  latx.i-. '  ^  few 
days  later  the  Queen  asked  amateur  sew«  s  nr  i  to  make  ;  r;  of  a 
list  of  garments  which  the  military  auth  rii  -;  wonkl  or  inarily 
buy  from  business  firms. 

On  August  20,  the  "Central  Committee  on  Women's  Kmploy- 
ment"  was  appointed.  Mary  Macarthur,  secretary  of  the  Na- 
tional Federation  of  Women  Workers,  was  honorary  secretary, 
and  five  of  the  fourteen  memljers  were  reiwesentatives  of  work- 
ing women  approved  by  the  workers'  national  committee.  This 
central  wcmien's  committee  was  given  control  of  the  Queen's 
Work  for  Women  Fund. 

•  Though  the  committee  met  with  many  delays  before  it  could 
start  its  undertakings,  and  though  it  was  able  to  pro'-iJe  for  only 
a  small  fraction  of  the  women  in  need,  its  genera;  principles  and 
methods  might  well  \ie  taken  as  a  standard  for  action  in  any 
similar  emergency. 

The  first  principle  on  which  the  committee  worked  was  that  "it 
is  better  that  workers  should  be  self-maintiining  than  dependent 
upon  relief,  even  when  that  relief  is  given  in  the  form  of  work." 
To  increase  the  volume  of  employment  the  committee  set  up  a 
"contract  department"  which  aimed  to  enlarge  the  number  of 
firms  having  government  contracts.  Three  different  methods 
were  used  in  doing  this.  One  especially  ingenious  device  was 
that  of  inducing  the  War  Office  to  simplify  certain  details  of  the 
army  uniform,  so  that  it  could  be  made  up  by  firms  not  used  to 
the  work.  "Thereafter  full  employment  in  the  clothing  trade 
coincided  with  a  greatly  improved  supply  of  army  clothing."' 
Firms  in  need  of  orders,  who  could  make  shirts,  khaki,  blankets, 
and  hosiery,  were  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  War  Office. 
Finally,  by  taking  large  contracts  from  the  government  and  divid- 

«-.'-i?'l91s''"'s"'  '^'''""''  "^  """  ^''""■'''  ^°"""''l"  "•>  Women's  F.mfloy- 


26 


ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 


ing  them  the  committee  supplied  work  to  a  number  of  small 
dressmaking  and  needlework  firms,  which  were  too  small  to  se- 

10,000  shirts  a  week  cut  out  in  the  committee's  own  work 
rooms,  and  105.000  flannel  body  belts  for  the  troops  were  given 
out  in  this  way.  It  is  important  to  note  that  the  work  was  "only 
undertaken  when  the  ordinary  trade  was  fully  employed  "  As 
a  niatter  of  fact,  at  the  same  time  that  thousands  of  women  and 
girls  were  out  of  work,  others  were  working  overtime  and  the 
government  was  unable  to  secure  sufficiem  clothing  for  the 
troops.  Except  that  the  committee  sometimes  made  advances  of 
working  capital,  to  be  returned  when  the  comract  was  finished, 
the  work  was  self-supporting.  Ordinary  trade  prices  and.  after 
tailed^*  few  weeks,  the  usual  methods  of  wage  payment  pre- 

The  other  main  branch  of  the  committee's  work  was  the  pro- 
vision of  relief  work  rooms,  under  its  own  supervision  in  Lon- 
don.  and  elsewhere  under  women's  subcommittees  of  the  local 
representative  committees  formed  by  the  Board  of  Trade  The 
subcommittees  were  required  to  include  representatives  of  work- 
ing women's  organizations  among  their  members.  The  commit- 
tee reports  that  its  decision  to  have  the  relief  work  carried 
on  under  the  auspices  of  such  comm:.tees  "caused  some  disap- 
pointment to  the  promoters  of  certain  private  charities  who  hoped 
to  procure  grants."  '■ 

The  work  rooms  were  not  allowed  to  compete  with  ordinary  in- 
dustry, for  which  reason  their  products  were  not  supposed  either 
to  be  sold  or  to  be  given  to  persons  who  could  afford  to  buy 
them.  It  was  stated,  however,  that  this  rule  was  difficult  to  en- 
force because  many  of  the  provincial  work  rooms  were  anxious 
to  make  articles  for  the  troops.  The  work  was  sup,»sed  to  be 
of  a  nature  to  train  the  workers  and  improve  their  efficiencv.  and 
m  this  the  commit^-e's  aims  seem  to  have  been  generally  realized 
Ihe  making  of       ,ap  but  tasteful  clothing  and  other  domestic 


'  Great  Britain, 
metit.  1915,  p.  9. 


:ort  of  the  Central  Committee  on  IVomen's  Employ- 


WOUEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


27 


and 
ized. 
estic  \ 


training  was  usually  provided.  In  many  places  the  women  were 
taught  to  cook  wholesome  low  cost  dinners  for  themselves.  In 
one  work  room  a  rough  factory  hand  who  had  hardly  handled  a 
needle  before  became  so  enthusiastic  over  her  handiwork  that  she 
remarked,  "It's  nice  to  be  learned." 

In  London  a  few  "sick  room  helps"  were  also  trained,  some 
clerical  workers  were  given  scholarships  to  learn  foreign  lan- 
guages, and  a  anall  number  of  factory  girls  were  sent  into  the 
country  to  become  market  gardeners.  In  selecting  ^)plicants 
girls  under  sixteen  and  non-working  wives  of  unemployed  men 
were  not  taken,  and  the  younger,  more  intelligent,  and  more 
teachable  women  were  given  preference.  Workers  were  obliged 
to  register  at  the  employment  exchanges'  and  to  accept  suitable 
employment  if  found. 

The  wages  paid  by  the  work  rooms  aroused  not  a  little  con- 
troversy. The  committee  fixed  3d.  as  the  hourly  wage  rate,  forty 
hours  as  the  weekly  working  time,  making  maximum  weekly 
earnings  10s.  ($2.40).  This  wage  scale  was  hotly  denounced 
by  certain  labor  representatives  as  "sweating."  The  committee 
justified  it  on  the  ground  that  the  hourly  rate  was  approximately 
that  set  by  the  trade  boards,  and  that  the  weekly  wage  must  be 
kept  sufficiently  low  so  that  women  would  not  be  attracted  to 
the  work  rooms  from  ordinary  emr'  nent.  After  careful  con- 
sideration, the  scale  was  endor  imouslv  by  the  War 
Emergency  Workers'  National  Ct  .»  In'  March.  1915, 
on  account  of  rising  prices,  a  work.ng  week  of  forty-six  hours 
was  permitted,  increasing  weekly  earnings  to  lis.  6d.  ($2  76) 
But  by  this  time  th-  state  of  trade  had  greatlv  improved  and  it 
had  already  been  ...^ssible  to  give  up  some  of  the  work  rooms. 
The  others  were  soon  closed  and  the  committee  gave  its  atten- 
tion to  investigating  new  fields  for  the  employment  of  women. 
Atjhe  end  of  1916  it  was  also  running  an  employment  bureau 

t^otCm^t/iC'"'  ^"'  "^''"'"'  ='"''  Unemployment,"  FaWa«  Tract 


*B  ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 

and  acting  as  a  clearing  house  for  related  organizations.  About 
9,000  women  had  passed  through  its  work  rooms  up  to  January, 
1915,  at  which  time  about  1,000  women  were  employed  by  the 
central  commit?. -e  in  London,  and  about  4.000  by  the  local  sub- 
committees.'' 


Oc'toCTwA'in'Ti:"  °"  {5?«'?"  ^'  employment  in  September  and 
iCis^hssjyn^T'\lV'''r^^r^^"  '"^"*  ^y  ""  Board  of  Trade 
IJ-CIS.//UJ,  7755,  and  7850].  The  Central  Committee  on  Women's  Emolov- 
an  ^riSfn/"-'-  J"  ;"'r™  ''""^  [Cd.  7748].  Miss  Edith  Abbott  J  ves 
an  exccUent  review*  of  the  extent  of  unemployment  and  the  work  of  the 
Central  Committee  in  the  y<,»r„a/  of  Political  Eco«omv  for  JuIy.l^Pl?  ("The 
War  and  Women's  Work  in  England,"  pp.  641-678.) 


About 
nuary, 

by  the 
J  sub- 


er  and 
Trade 
mploy- 
:  gives 
of  the 
("The 


CHAPTER  IV 

Increase  in  the  E^plojrment  of  Women 

The  rapid  growth  in  the  number  of  women  workers  and  their 
entrance  into  hundreds  of  occupations  formerly  carried  on  by 
men  alone  are  two  of  the  most  striking  industrial  lAenomena 
of  the  world  war.  The  decrease  in  women's  employment  which 
marked  the  beginning  of  the  war  disappeared  month  by  month 
until  the  level  of  July,  1914,  was  reached  in  April,  1915.  In  the 
next  month  the  Labour  Gazette  noted  that  the  shortage  of  male 
labor  was  now  extending  to  female  and  boy  labor  in  many  lines. 
Up  to  this  time  recruiting  had  been  comparatively  slow.  Xow 
came  Lord  Kitchener's  appeal  for  "men  and  still  more  men," 
and  as  the  army  grew  the  women  had  to  fill  the  depleted  ranks 
of  industry. 

By  August,  1915,  the  British  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science  set  the  increase  of  women  over  July,  1914,  at 
over  150,000  in  industrial  lines  alone,  besides  considerable  gains 
in  certain  non-industrial  occupations.'  In  November  of  that 
year  the  number  of  women  registering  at  the  emplojinent  ex- 
changes for  the  first  time  exceeded  that  of  men.  In  April,  1916, 
by  which  time  the  army  had  been  much  enlarged  and  the  first 
conscription  act  was  in  effect,  the  increase  had  reached  583,000, 
according  to  official  estimate,  and  the  number  of  women  workers 
was  growing  at  least  five  times  as  fast  as  before  the  war.  In 
January,  1917.  the  net  gain  in  the  number  of  women  gainfully 
occupied  was  809,000.  and  in  July.  1917.  the  latest  month  for 
which  official  figures  were  available  by  December,  1,059.000 
more  women  were  at  work  than  in  July,  1914.  In  short,  in 
three  years  of  war  more  than  a  million  additional  women  en- 
tered work  outside  their  homes.  This  was  over  a  sixth  of  the 
whole  number  of  women  employed  in  1911. 

a:^l^%:^';^tU^'   AHv.nccn,cnt   of   Science.   Credit.  M..,ry, 


30 


ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 


The  rush  of  women  and  girls  into  gainful  employments  shows 
few  signs  of  slackening.  In  the  latter  part  of  1916,  it  seemed, 
mdeed,  as  if  the  increased  number  of  women  was  reaching  its 
highest  point,  for  between  July  and  October,  1916,  the  increase 
m  numbers  was  only  about  a  third  as  great  as  between  April 
and  July.'  But  in  the  next  quarter,  endinjjf  in  January,  1917,  the 
decline  was  checked,  and  between  January  and  April,  1917,'  the 
increase  was  "nearly  double  that  of  the  precedintr  quarter." 
A  somewhat  lesser  gain  between  April  and  July  was  accounted 
for  in  the  Labour  Gazette  by  a  decrease  in  the  kinds  of  work  in 
government  munitirai  factories  on  which  women  were  most 
largely  employed. 

Up  to  September,  1917,  the  state  of  employment  month  by 
month  remained  "good,  with  much  overtime  in  many  trades  "• 
Preparations  were  then  being  made  to  take  for  military  service 
many  men  previously  exempted  on  industrial  grounds.  Evidently 
there  was  room  for  a  still  further  extension  of  women's  employ, 
ment— provided  that  more  women  could  be  secured.  The  evi- 
dence on  this  point  is  scanty,  but  seems  to  indicate  that  there  are 
still  available  women  "not  gainfully  occupied."* 

Turning  aside  from  the  increases  in  the  total  number  of  women 
workers  to  an  analysis  of  changes  in  the  various  occupations  a 
picture  IS  obtained  not  only  of  what  the  army  of  new  woric^ 
IS  doing,  but  also  of  many  of  the  alterations  wrought  by  war 
on  the  fabric  of  British  industry. 

First  Year  of  War 
Within  a  few  weeks  after  the  beginning  of  the  war  the  gov- 
ernment "came  into  the  market  as  chief  buyer,'"  with  large  rush 
orders  for  the  equipment  of  troops.     This  involved  an-"enor. 

>  l-aboMr  Gazette,  Januar>-,  1917,  p.  8, 
» Ibid.,  August.  1917,  p.  274. 
» Ibid..  July.  1917,  p.  231. 
♦  See  pp.  74,  75. 

tkeVatp^n^^"''""'  ^°'  """  •'^•'^''"""""'  °f  Science.  Credit,  Industry,  and 


'-■-JliMf 


'SWBBBS 


WOUKN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


31 


mously  multiplied  demand  for  women's  services"  in  certain  lines, 
some  time  before  the  period  of  unemployment  was  over.  In- 
creases  in  the  nimiber  of  women  in  the  leather,  engineering,  and 
hosiery  industries  were  noted  by  October,  1914.  Before  the  end 
of  1914  there  was  said  to  be  an  increase  of  100,000  women  in  the 
woolen  and  worsted  industry  (for  khaki,  flannel,  and  blankets) ; 
in  hosiery;  in  the  clothing  trade  (for  military  tailoring,  fur  coat 
making,  caps,  and  shirts) ;  in  the  boot  and  shoe  trade;  and  in 
the  making  of  ammunition,  rations,  and  jam,  kit  bags  and  haver- 
sacks, surgical  dressings  and  bandages,  and  tin  boxes.  Yet 
owing  to  lack  of  the  necessary  skill  or  because  they  could  not  be 
moved  to  the  locality  where  their  services  were  in  demand,  thou- 
sands of  "capable  though  untrained  young  women  lacked  em- 
ployment when  other  factories  were  overwhelmed  with  their 
ccMitracts  and  girls  and  women  strained  nearly  to  the  breaking 
point.'" 

"The  relative  immobility  of  labor  was  never  more  clearly 
shown,"  says  Miss  B.  L.  Hutchins.' 

At  the  end  of  a  full  year  of  war,  the  increased  number  of 
women  in  industry  proper  was  estimated  at  100,000,  largely  in 
the  lines  entmierated  above,  in  addition  to  the  growing  number 
of  women  in  the  munitions  branch  of  the  engineering  trade. 
The  gain  in  munitions  was  put  at  50.000  in  July,  1915.*  The 
Labour  Gazette  first  noted  the  work  of  women  on  munitions  in 
April,  1915.  On  the  27th  of  the  same  month  it  was  stated  in 
the  House  of  Commons  that  out  of  more  than  8,000  women  who 
had  volunteered  especially  for  armament  work,  only  440  had 
yet  been  placed,  but  that  some  of  the  principal  firms  wouM  need 
about  13,000  additional  women  within  the  next  few  months.* 

An  interesting  account  of  the  introduction  of  women  into 
munitions  work  speaks  of  the  rush  of  women  to  register  for  it 

•Great  Britain  Home  Office.  Report  of  the  Chief  Intpector  of  Factories 
and  Workshops  for  igr4.  p.  33. 
«  B.  L.  Hutchins,  Women  m  Modern  Industry.  1915,  p.  246. 

•  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  Credit,  Industry,  and 
the  War,  p.  137. 

«  House  of  Commons  Debates,  April  27,  1915,  p.  SS8. 


32 


irONOmc  KFFECTS  or  THE  WAR 


.n  May.  1915,  after  the  battle  of  Neuve  Chapelle.  when  the  public 
first  became  aware  of  the  shortage  of  munitions.'  But  positions 
were  then  ••excee<1ingly  difficult  to  obuin "  and  the  use  ofwo^i 
became  general  only  in  September  or  later,  fhe  success  Ta 
group  of  educated  women  placed  as  supervisors  in  an  inspection 
factory  who  were  trained  at  Woolwich  Arsenal  in  AugusTwa. 
said  to  have  been  the  determining  factor  in  leading  to  the  intrt^ 
ducfon  of  female  labor  on  a  large  scale  at  Woolwich  anS  ZZ 
government  esUbiishments. 

Jr"'ih!  n'J^""  I*"'  ^"'  ''f  °'  "^^'  "'*^*^  °^  ^"'  how- 
ever, the  additional  women  factory  workers  seldom  took  the 

places  of  men,  but  entered  the  same  occupations  in  which  women 

had  long  been  employed.     The  "new  demand  was  to^a  3 

extent  for  that  class  of  goods  in  the  production  of  which  fe^Se 

labou    normally  predominates."'     Women  had  for  many  years 

operated  power  machines  in  the  clothing  trades  and  had  been 

employed  m  the  making  of  cartridges  and  tin  boxes,  in  certain 

processes  m  woden  mills,  in  boot  and  shoe  factories  and  in  the 

food  traces.     The  needs  of  the  army  so  far  merely  provided 

more  opportunities  along  the  usual  lines  of  women's  work 

of  thr«rt!  t'"""/  '""^  '"'^  '"'"'""  "'  ^915  that  instances 
of  the  subst.tut.on  of  women  for  men  first  began  to  be  noted  in 
jn  ustnal  en^ployments.  The  Labour  C^o^^rfirst  men^^  d 
^e  genera    subject    n  June,  and  in  July  stated  that  the  move 

tonsh  re  efforts  were  be.ng  made  in  Mav  to  put  women  on 

purely  automatic  machines  hitherto  worked  by  men  "     I^bZ 

th,s  tnne  a  violent  controversy  broke  out  in  the  cotton  trade 

helped  each  male  spmner.  Boys  had  been  used  for  this  purpose 
and  Hje  un.on  rules  fort>ade  the  employment  of  wome^lTon 
offimls  were  strong  m  opposition,  saying  that  the  work  wa^ 

Nl^sX^SSitp.-u'"''''"'"  ='■"'  ^'""'•-"  ^'''*"  '^---^  Industrial 
'He  W^r'''""  '"'  ♦"*  Advancement  of  Science.  Credi,.  Mus.ry.  a«d 


WOMEN   AND  CHILDREN   IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


33 


unsuitable  fur  women,  and  that  they  would  undercut  the  wage 
Htes.  An  agreement  permitting  the  use  of  the  women  was 
.mally  made  with  the  union,  but  even  before  it  was  ratified 
women  "piecers"  had  become  increasingly  common. 

The  frequent  use  of  women  on  work  formerly  done  by  men 
in  the  munitions  branch  of  the  "encineering"  (machinists')  trade 
also  dates  from  about  this  time  )n  August  20,  1915,  The 
Enqincer,  a  British  trade  pap^r,  ad  that  "during  the  past 
few  months  a  great  and  far.  rearli  ;  change  has  been  effected. 
.  .  .  In  a  certain  factory  (making  projectiles  up  to  4.5  inch 
gun  size)  a  new  department  was  started  some  time  ago,  the 
working  people  being  women,  with  a  few  expert  men  as  over- 
seers and  t"  'hers.  .  .  .  By  no  means  all  of  the  work  has 
been  of  tl  ition  type,  demanding  little  or  no  manipulative 

ability,  but  much  of  it  .  .  .  taxe<l  the  intelligence  of  the 
operatives  to  a  high  degree.  Yet  the  work  turned  out  has  reached 
a  high  pitch  of  excellence.  ...  It  may  safely  be  said  that 
women  can  satisfactorily  handle  much  heavier  pieces  of  metal 
than  had  previously  been  dreamt  of." 

Women  are  said  to  have  been  successful  in  "arduous" 
processes,  such  as  forging,  previously  performed  by  men,  and  in 
managing  machine  tools  not  even  semi-automatic.  "It  can  be 
stated  with  absolute  truth  that  with  the  possible  exception  of 
the  heaviest  tools — and  their  inability  to  work  even  these  has 
yet  to  be  established — women  have  shown  themselves  perfectly 
capable  of  performing  operations  which  hitherto  have  been  ex- 
clusively carried  out  by  men." 

But  for  industry  as  a  whole  the  judgment  of  the  British  Asso- 
ciation for  the  Advancement  of  Science  on  the  extent  of  substi- 
tution during  the  first  year  of  war  is  probably  accurate.  "Broadly 
speaking,"  it  was  said,  "the  movement  [of  women  into  trades 
and  occupations  hitherto  reserved  wholly  or  partially  to  men] 
has  only  just  begun  to  assume  any  appreciable  magnitude. 
.     .     .     In  few  industries  has  the  position  yet  shaped  itself."' 

'  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  Credit,  Indtutry  and 
ihi  War,  p.  70. 


34 


tCONOMIC  EPrKCTf  OF  THE  WAI 


But  in  a  number  of  trades,  noteworthy  among  which  wer« 

leather,  engineering,  wool,  cotton,  pottery,  and  printing,  women. 

while  not  yet  undertaking  the  moat  highly  .kiUed  woric.  were 
undoubtedly  slowly  undertaking  processes  that  were  previoualy 

thought  fust  above  the  line  of  their  strength  and  skill."' 

Very  soon  after  the  outbreak  of  war  there  began  to  be  an 

mcrease  m  the  number  of  women  in  certain  i;on-industrial  occu- 
pations,  most  important  of  which  were  clerical  woric.  retail  trade 
and  the  railway  service.    Unfortunately  no  estimate  is  available 
of  the  actual  numbers  of  women  so  employed  in  the  first  year 
of  the  war.  but  the  increase  must  have  been  considerable.  Banks 
and  insurance  offices  for  the  first  time  hired  women  and  «rls 
in  any  great  numbers,  mostly  for  the  more  routine  parts  of  the 
work.    The  avil  service  took  on  a  good  many  women  in  the 
lower  grades,  of  its  work,  and  already  complaints  were  heard  of 
the  prejudice  which  confined  trained  women  to  routine  work 
while  the  "upper  division"  struggled  on  understaffed.     In  the 
postoffice  more  women  clerics  and  some  postmen  were  noted. 
There  was  a  :.  >   -derable  increase  in  the  number  of  women  in 
retail  trade    n  -  i:,ous  capacities,  including  shop  assistants  in 
dry  goods  and  provision  stores,  packers,  and  delivery  "girls" 

ticket  collectors  on  the  station  platforms,  and  in  the  railway  offices 
Some  cities  had  hired  women  as  street  cleaners  and  tram  car 
conductors.  The  exodus  of  foreign  waiters  left  openings  for 
more  waitresses. 

In  these  lines  it  can  be  seen  that  from  the  first  the  women  took 
met.  s  places  And  as  the  public  came  into  daily  comact  with 
clerks  m  bonks  and  business  offices,  postal  emploves.  employes 
n  shops  and  on  delivery  vans,  tram  conductors  and  ticket  col- 
wtors.  there  probably  arose  an  exaggerated  idea  of  the  extent 
to  which  WOT  en  did  "men's  woric"  during  the  first  year  of  war 

The  number  of  women  in  agriculture,  in  which  the  Labour 

onT,  tl  '  ''''?''^'^  °^  '^•"^•^  '^^^  '"  ^he  early  months 

on915.  began  to  nse  slightly  in  the  spring  and  summer  of  1915. 

/*^  ^f^^^V'TT""'""  '"^  *^  Advance„.ent  of  Sd«,ce,  Credit,  Industry,  and 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


35 


The  increases  were  reported  in  nearly  all  the  principal  branches 
of  the  season's  work,  first  in  potato  planting,  then  in  turnip 
hoeing,  next  in  haying  and  fruit  picking,  and  finally  in  the  har- 
vnt  In  almost  every  case  the  additional  women  were  employed 
on  work  formerly  done  by  men.  But,  according  to  a  careful 
study  covering  this  period: 

Most  of  the  press  paragraphs  referring  to  the  replacement 
of  men  by  women  upon  farnv*  have  been  calculated  to  give 
an  erroneous  impression  to  the  unknowing  public.  The 
demand  for  female  labor  in  agriculture  during  1915  was 
not  very  great  and  a  large  number  of  girls  who  offered  to 
take  up  such  work  failed  to  find  employment.* 

Second  Year  of  War 

The  next  convenient  date  at  which  to  note  the  changes  in 
the  number  of  women  employed  and  in  their  occupations  is 
April,  1916,  when  nearly  two  years  had  i>assed  under  war  con- 
diti(Mis.  A  second  investigation  by  the  British  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of  Science  covers  conditions  at  that  period, 
and  the  first  of  the  Labour  Gazette's  quarterly  summaries  of  "the 
extension  of  the  employment  of  women"  is  of  that  date. 

The  total  war  increase  in  numbers  in  industrial  occupations 
was  put  at  13  2  per  cent  of  the  estimated  number -employed  in 
July,  1914,  or  287,500,  in  April,  T  916.  In  the  metal  trades, 
chemicals,  and  woodworking,  the  increases  were  by  far  the 
largest,  being  88  per  cent  or  126,900,  84  per  cent  or  33,600.  and 
33  per  cent  or  13,200  respectively.  These  figures  show  the  rush 
of  women  into  the  engineering  branch  of  munitions  work,  which 
began  to  be  heavy  in  the  fall  of  1915,  and  into  the  manufacture 
of  explosives.  Both  patriotism  and  the  economic  incentive  of 
high  wages  helped  to  secure  women  to  meet  the  rapid  expansion 
in  these  trades.  The  increase  in  woodworking  trades  likewise 
had  a  direct  connection  with  war  orders,  as  it  involved  the  work 
of  women  on  aeroplanes  and  in  making  ammunition  boxes.  Other 

'  Women's  Industrial  News,  July,  1916,  p.  28. 


36 


RCONOIIIC  RPKRCTM  Of  TUB  WAII 


marked    increase.,    though    not    proportionally    an    large     wei 

found  in  the  textile  and  food  trader. 

Uiring  the  autumn  of  1915  and  the  early  month.,  of  PM.,  th 

reiJacen^fnt  of  men  by  wotnen  in  indu.try  prugrewed  much  n,or 
ra,,,dl>  than  m  the  first  year  ..f  war.  During  nearly  every  monti 
o  .hu  pen«<l  the  Labour  iiazttU  noted  the  i.u  .c-a..ng  iturtag, 
o.  n«.le  he  p  a,  n«n  were  called  into  the  arn,y.  the  growing  »ub 
»  m,.,on  of  women,  and  the  need  fen-  ..iH  further  replacen,ent 
B>  .he  end  of  1915.  the  "Principal  I^ly  Inspector  of  Factories- 
slated  HI  her  report  for  that  year  that  though  the  repUcemeni 
of  men  ol  military  age  was  still  "probably  very  much  !c*«  than 
.»  Kenerally  suppoaed"  the  employment  of  women  on  "men's 
work    in  the  exp«,ding  munitions  industry  and  in  manv  staple 

InH      ^^\"l  "*P"'^  ♦''*'  ^  '"'i^'y  neyy  industrial  ,K>sitic.n 
and  outlook  has  ouptntA  for  women."' 

In  .\,,ril.  1916.  it  was  estimated  that  about  one  woman  indus- 
tnal  worker  out  of  every  seven  was  replacing  a  man.  the  total 
number  of  substitute,  in  industry  at  this  time  being  375.9(X1 
By  far  the  largest  number.  117.400.  were  found  in  the  "metal 
rades  (munitions),  and  textiles,  clothing,  miscellaneous  trades, 
food,  paper  and  priming,  and  woodworking  followed  in  the  order 
named^    A  month  or  two  later  the  Labour  Gazette  could  state 

iilr  T.  ^'""i  '"?""'""  °'  occupations  "in  which  some 
substitution  of  females  for  males  had  not  taken  place" 

By  the  spring  and  summer  of  1916.  also,  the  effect  of  extend- 
ing the  employ„Knt  of  women  had  begun  to  be  felt  b^•  those 
Imes  wh,ch.  before  the  war.  had  been  considere<l  preeminently 
«on,an  s  work.  The  British  .A.ssociation  for  the  Advancemem 
of  Science  reported  in  April  a  100.000  decline  in  the  number  of 
domestic  servants  and  a  slight  decreise  in  the  number  of  women 
m  the  paper  and  printing  trade.  In  July  the  Labour  Gazette 
foimd  decreases  also  in  dressmaking,  confectionery,  and  the  linen, 
lace^and  s, Ik  trades.  By  October.  1916.  40  per  cent  of  the  firms 
mjhe  textile  trades.  21  per  cent  in  clothing,  and  19  per  cent  in 


WOMEN   AND  riilLURKN  IN  ORKAT  BKITAIN 


37 


paper  .■nd  printing  were  unable  to  till  their  dctnaii  U  for  female 
help,  as  contrasted  with  5  per  cent  in  the  metal  trades,  i  per 
cent  in  chemicals  and  K  |ier  c<mt  in  m (JudworfcinK.  "It  is  clear 
therefore  .  .  ."  states  the  Gasettt,  "that  the  process  of  trans- 
ference from  these  trades  (which  are  ordinarily  women's  occu- 
pations) to  muniti<ni  work  or  other  tjctter  (>aid  occupations  still 
continues."' 

The  largest  iiKreases  in  the  employment  of  women,  however, 
both  absolutely  and  profK>rtionally,  were  to  be  found  in  April 
1916,  in  the  non-industrial  group.  The  total  increase  over  pre- 
war numbers  was  310,000.  In  "commercial"  work  alone  the 
mmiber  of  women  had  risen  by  181,000.  The  gain  in  "Ixanking 
and  finance,"  t.  e.,  women  clerks  in  banks  and  financial  office^, 
was  242  per  cent  or  23,000,  and  in  "transport,"  that  is  to  say 
railway  work,  was  16,000,  or  168  per  cent.  The  total  niutilier 
of  women  substitutes,  however  (361.000),  was  not  <|uite  as  great 
as  in  manufacturing  industries — a  reversal  of  conditions  during 
the  first  year  of  war,  though  the  largest  number  of  siilwiitutes 
in  any  one  line  of  work  was  189,000.  to  l)c  foiuid  in  "com- 
mercial" occupations.' 

In  agriculture  the  employment  of  women,  as  has  l)een  noteil, 
increased  slightly  in  1915,  but  on  the  whole  it  "made  slow  prog- 
ress." During  1916,  liowe\er,  the  increase  was  much  nvirc 
rapid,  both  among  rgular  workers  and  among  such  temporary 
woriters  as  fruit-pickers  and  harvest  hands.  An  increase  of 
20,000  or  25  per  cent  in  the  number  of  regular  women  workers 
in  Great  Britain  alone  was  reported  in  July.  In  the  autumn  the 
numbers  fell  oflf,  however,  on  account  of  the  physical  strength 
require  '  or  the  ploughing  and  othqr  work  carried  on  at  that 
season. 

Third  Year  of  War 

The  latest  official  figures  at  |>resent  available  (December, 
1917),  carry  forward  the  story  of  the  increa.se  in  women  work- 

'  Labour  Gazttte,  Januao'.  1917,  p.  8. 
'  S«  Appendix  C. 


38 


ECONOMIC  EFFICTS  OF  THE  WAR 


ers  more  than  a  year  further  to  July.  1917.  It  is  a  period  oi 
sinking  developments,  both  in  growth  in  the  number  of  wOmer 
workers  and  in  the  extent  to  which  they  filled  men's  jobs 

Best  known  of  these  changes  to  American  readers  is  the  con 
stant  expansion  in  the  number  of  women  munition  makers  The 
number  of  government  .     .lition  factories  had  risen  from  foui 

the  beginnmg  of  the  war  to  103  in  January,  1917,  and  th« 
number  of  women  employed  in  them  and  in  docks  and  arsenals 
increased  by  202.000.  or  9,596  per  cent,  between  July.  1914  and 

iSfi  '^!,^.;^^~'"''*  ^""'"'  *'™  -^«  »25  worn;,  in 
?  u  "fJ^'^  '"  ^^^^-  "^^^  ""^'^^  '>^  ^«"en  in  3.900  out 
of  the  4.200  "controlled"  establishments  doing  munitions  work 
was  reported  to  be  369.000  in  February,  1917.'  In  April  1917 
the  increase  in  the  number  of  women  in  the  trades  which  cov- 
ered most  of  the  munition  woric  outside  n-tional  factories,  namely 
metah.  chemicals,  and  woodwork.  ^  308.000,  51.000,  and 
24,000  respectively.  In  June.  1917.  the  then  Minister  of  Muni- 
tions. Dr.  Christopher  Addison.  toW  the  House  of  Commons  that 
from  60  to  80  per  cent  of  all  the  machine  work  on  "shells  fuses 
and  trench  warfare  supplies"  was  performed  by  women  One 
shrapnel  bullet  factory  was  said  to  be  run  entirely  by  women 

to  the  United  States  from  the  British  Ministry  of  Munitions 
stated  that  there  had  been,  during  the  war.  a  700  per  cent  increase 
m  the  number  of  women  in  munitions  work.  80  per  cent  of  which 
at  that  time  was  carried  on  by  female  labor.  Women  performed 
80  per  cent  of  the  work  on  explosives,  and  practically  all  of 
that  on  aeroplane  machinery. 

The  total  gain  of  518.000  in  the  number  of  women  in  indus- 
tnal  arcuf^tions  under  private  ownership  in  July.  1917.  was  like- 
wise  found  m  a  great  variety  of  staple  trades  less  directly  con- 
nected  with  war  orders,  many  of  which  were  far  removed  from 
he  scope  of  women's  work  previous  to  the  war.  .  For  instance, 
the  number  of  women  in  grain  milling  rose  from  2.000  to  6.000, 


-**«^k 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


39 


in  sugar  refining  from  1,000  to  2,000,  and  in  brewing  from  8,000 
to  18,000  by  July,  1916.'  Women  have  become  bakers  and 
butchers  and  even  stokers.'  The  employment  of  women  in- 
creased in  the  building  trades,  in  surface  woric  in  mining,  in 
quarrying,  brick-making,  and  cement  work,  in  furniture  manu- 
facture, and  in  the  making  of  glass,  china  and  earthenware. 
Women  were  reported  to  be  buildine  "  od-sized  electric  motors, 
working  in  shipbuilding  yards,  testnif,  dynamos,  working  elec- 
tric overhead  traveling  cranes,  gauging  tools  to  a  thousandth  of 
an  inch  and  less,  and  performing  the  most  highly  skilled  work 
on  optical  instruments.'  The  British  mission  from  the  Ministry 
of  Munitions  described  a  former  kitchen-maid  who  was  running 
a  900-horsepower  steam  engine  without  assistance. 

A  committee  of  industrial  women's  organizations  stated,  in 
the  winter  of  1916-1917  that,  except  for  underground  mining, 
some  processes  in  dock  labor  and  steel  smelting,  and  iron  found- 
ing, "the  introduction  of  women  in  varying  numbers  is  practically 
universal."*  And  even  in  steel  works  women  were  sometimes 
employed  in  breaking  limestcMie  and  loading  bricks,  though  not 
on  the  actual  smelting  of  the  metal,  while  in  iron  foundries  nego- 
tiaticms  were  going  on  to  see  where  women  could  be  used. 

Meanwhile,  the  decrease  in  women  wori«ers  in  what,  before  the 
war,  were  distinctively  "women's  trades,"  became  more  marked. 
For  instance,  in  April,  1917,  the  number  of  women  was  falling  off 
in  textiles  and  the  food  trades,  though  these  were  still  above  pre- 
war levels,  in  dressmaking  and  domestic  service,  where  the  de- 

'  Labour  Gasctle,  July,  1916.  p.  357. 

•Great  Britain  War  Office,  fVomen's  War  Work,  pp.  49,  56,  57. 
82*  and'V?"'*'"  **'"'"'''  °'  Munitions,  Dilniion  Bulletin,  April.  1917,  pp. 

'Stonding  Joint  Cranmittee   of   Industrial   Women's   Organiiations,   The 
Ponhon  of  Women  After  the  War,  1916,  p.  5. 


't 


ft 


Ml 


40  ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 

dine  was  put  at  300,000,  and  in  laundry  woric  for  which  exact 
figures  were  not  obtainable.' 

It  had  become  so  difficult  for  the  London  high  class  dress- 
making and  millinery  shops  to  secure  employes  that  in  the  fall 
of  1916  some  of  the  employers  met  with  representatives  of  the 
London  County  Council  and  the  employment  exchanges  and 
planned  considerable  improvements  in  working  conditions.  The 
changes  included  a  reduction  of  the  seasonality  of  the  trade  and 
a  shortening  of  the  working  hours.  But  in  July,  1917,  their 
supply  of  labor  was  still  "insufficient."' 

In  non-industrial  occupations  also  during  the  period  from 
April.  1916,  to  July,  1917,  there  was  a  continued  increase  in  the 
number  of  women  employed  and  the  kinds  of  work  they  were 
doing.  Next  to  "government  establishments"  the  largest  per- 
centage of  increase  (though  the  absolute  numbers  are  compara- 
tively small)  were  found  in  some  of  these  groups.  In  "bank- 
ing and  finance"  the  gain  over  July,  1914,  was  570  per  cent,  in 
"transport"  422  per  cent,  and  in  civil  service  150  per  cent, 
gain  in  numbers  in  the  whole  group,  exclusive  of  agricuK 
was  639,000,  of  which  324,000  were  found  in  "commei  .. 
occupations."' 

Along  with  the  growth  in  numbers  the  kinds  of  work  done  by 
women  in  these  lines  continued  to  extend.    On  the  railroads,  to 

iThe  following  table  from  the  Labour  Gasette.  August.  1917,  p.  274,  brings 
out  the  changes  in  the  employment  of  women  in  several  of  the  more  im- 
portant industrial  occupations  between  July,  1914,  and  January  and  April.  1917. 

INCREASE  OR  DECREASE  IN  THE  NUMBER  OF  WOMEN  EM- 
PLOYED SINCE  JULY,  1914 

January.  1917.        April,  1917. 

Metals                   267,000  308,000 

ChemicaU 43,000  51,000 

Textile,      :                           23.000  22,000 

ClothnB .            --M-OOO  -^7,000 

pl^d,"'' 26,000  18.000 

Paper  ind  Print  -6.000  -7,000 

Woods   19-000  24,000 

Total 399,000  453,000 

«  LiAoMT  Gasette,  August,  1917,  p.  282. 
'  See  Appendix  D. 


WOMF.K   AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


41 


the  women  clerks,  car  cleaners,  and  ticket  collectors  of  the  first 
months  of  war  were  added  shop  laborers,  engine  cleaners, 
and  porters.  In  several  Scottish  and  a  few  English  and  Welsh 
cities,  women  became  tram  drivers  as  well  as  conductors.  Cities 
employed  not  only  women  street  cleaners  and  a  larger  number 
of  women  clerks  and  teachers,  but  women  in  various  capacities 
in  power  stations,  sewage  farms,  gas  works,  and  parks,  and  as 
scavengers.'  A  few  official  "policewomen"  were  appointed,  and 
there  were  numerous  women  "patrols"  or  voluntary  police. 
There  were  women  lamp  lighters  and  women  windo\v  cleaners, 
and  the  errand  girl  had  practically  replaced  the  errand  boy.' 

While  in  July,  1917,  according  to  the  Labour  Gasctte*  the 
number  of  women  employed  permanently  on  the  land  in  Great 
Britain  had  increased  by  23,000  or  28.7  per  cent  since  July, 
1914,  the  number  of  casual  workers  had  increased  39.000  or  77 
per  cent  during  the  same  period.  The  total  number  of  women 
employed  in  farm  work  in  July,  1917,  may  therefore  be  esti- 
mated as  192,000. 

A  particularly  interesting  development  in  women's  work  dur- 
ing the  third  year  of  war  was  their  employment  in  work  for 
the  army  behind  the  lines  in  France.  In  July,  1915,  a  member 
of  the  government,  in  answering  an  inquiry  in  the  House  of 
Commons  as  to  the  number  of  soldiers  detailed  for  clerical  work, 
remarked  that  on  the  continent  "obviously  neither  old  civilian 
clerks  nor  women  clerks  would  be  suitable."  But  two  years  later 
thousands  of  English  women  were  at  work  there  not  only  as 
clerks,  telegraphers,  and  postal  employes,  but  also  as  army  cooks 
and  cleaners,  and,  according  to  unofficial  statements,  as  chauf- 
feurs and  carpenters  and  other  mechanics.*  The  womien  em- 
ployed in  this  way  were  carefully  selected  and  organized  under 
semi-militar\-  discipline,  as  the  "Women's  Amty  Auxiliary 
Corps"  (popularly  known  as  the  "Waacs").    A  newspaper  dis- 

»  Labour  Casette,  Octobe' ,  1916.  p.  357. 

»  National  Union  of  Women  Workers,  Occasional  Paper.  August   1916  p  3' 

»  The  Suney,  November,  1917.  p.  395. 

♦  The  Saturday  Evening  Post.  September  29,  1917. 


42 


ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 


i  „ 

1?? 

lit 

e 

'i 


patch  in  October,  1917,  suted  that  10,000  volunteers  were  needed 
for  this  service  both  in  England  and  overseas  before  the  end  of 
the  month  and  at  least  10.000  monthly  thereafter.*  Thirty-ei^it 
thousand  women  were  engaged  in  militar>-  nursing  in  July, 

As  indicated  by  the  variety  of  occupations,  b<«h  industrial  and 
non-industrial,  in  which  their  employment  increased,  the  substi- 
tution of  women  for  men  went  forward  rapidly  during  the  third 
year  of  war.    The  total  number  of  "females  substituted  for  male 
workers"  amounted  in  July,  1917,  to  1,354,000  exclusive  of 
casual  farm  laborers,  or  to  1,392.000  if  such  laborers  be  in- 
cluded.    In  "government  establishments"  the  number  of  women 
on  men's  work  was  9,120  times  as  great  as  the  whole  number 
of  women  employed  in  July,  1914,  in  "banking  and  finance"  the 
number  was  555  times  as  great;  in  "transport,"  437  times,  and 
ra   "avil   service"    152   times  as  great.     About  one  working 
woman  out  of  every  three  was  replacing  a  man  in  July,  1917,  in 
the  occupations  covered  by  the  tables  of  the  Labour  Gaeette 

The  report  of  the  "Chief  Inspector  of  Factories  and  Work- 
shops" for  1916  gives  an  interesting  description  of  the  progress 
of  substitution  and  of  the  work  of  women  in  heavy  occupations 
formerly  carried  on  exclusively  by  men.  The  Principal  Lady 
Inspector,  Miss  Anderscm,  says,  in  part : 

It  app^Ts  that  the  one  absolute  limit  to  the  replacement 
of  men  by  women  lies  in  those  heavy  occupations  and 
processes  where  adaptation  of  plant  or  appliances  can  not 
be  effected  so  as  to  bring  them  within  the  compass  even  of 
selected  women,  of  physical  capacity  above  the  normal 
Very  surprising,  however,  is  the  outcome  of  careful  selec- 
tion, even  in  fairly  heavy  work,  in  rubber  manufacture 
paper  mills,  oil  cake  and  seed  crushing  mills,  shale  oil 
works,  shipyards  iron  and  tube  works,  chemical  works,  gas 
works  and  stacking  of  coal,  tan  yards,  coarse  ware  Mid 


«  A  newspaper  dispatch  of  November  29  announced  that  a  similar  uniform..^ 

^dy  of  women  was  to  be  organized  in  the  navy,  called  the  'Woman',  R^™1 

"sie  C"dix  r""'"™'""  ""'"  '"'"  S:™erly  .^kSTby'sa^lo^.! 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


43 


brick  making,  flour  milling  and  other  trades.  "If  they  stick 
this,  they  will  stick  anythmg,"  a  manager  is  reported  as 
saying  of  the  grit  and  pluck  of  the  wor>en  in  a  gas  worics 
in  the  recent  severe  weather.' 

She  adds,  however,  what  may  occur  to  many  students  of 
women's  work,  diat :  "It  is  permissible  to  wonder  whether  stmie 
of  the  surprise  and  admiration  freely  expressed  in  many  quar- 
ters over  new  proofs  of  women's  physical  cj^»acity  and  endurance 
is  not  in  port  attributaWe  to  lack  of  knowledge  or  appreciation 
of  the  very  heavy  and  strenuous  nature  of  much  of  normal  pre- 
war work  for  wcnnen,  domestic  and  industrial." 

Nevertheless,  despite  these  increases,  the  amount  of  substitu- 
tion varied  widely  bet  veen  different  trades  and  even  between 
different  firms  in  the  same  trade,  and  opportunities  for  replace- 
ment still  existed.  Often  women  had  been  more  widely  intro- 
duced into  occupations  like  railway  trucking,  for  which  they  did 
not  appear  well  fitted,  than  into  such  work  as  electroplating, 
which  seemed  in  every  way  suitable. 

Women's  lack  of  trade  training,  their  inferior  strength,  the 
special  restrictions  of  the  factory  acts,  moral  objections  to  hav- 
ing men  and  women  in  the  same  workshop,  and  the  need  of 
increasing  sanitary  accommodations  and  providing  women  super- 
visors had  been  from  the  first  alleged  as  objections  to  putting 
women  in  men's  places.'  But  the  strongest  obstacles  were  appar- 
ently trade  unicm  opposition,  frequently  expressed  in  restrictions 
m  trade  agreements,  and  the  prejudice  of  employers.  "The 
progress  of  substitution  probably  depends  in  many  cases  on  the 
pressure  exercised  by  military  tribunals,"  said  the  "Principal 
Lady  Inspector  of  Factories,"  early  in  1917.  "Employers  will 
not  experiment  with  women  as  long  as  they  can  get  men.  though 
once  they  do  so  they  are  pleased  with  the  result."' 

an'^^'^rrk^^^^^fo^ZlTt  """"'  "^  ""  ^*'''  ^"^'"'^  "^  "'"''"" 
the  ^m^mi^f^,  '^'  ""=  Advancement  of  Science.  Ubour.  Finance,  and 


Mif 


CHAPTER  V 

Organised  Efforts  to  Recruit  Women's  Labor 

The  increase  in  the  number  of  women  workers  and  in  t 
scope  of  their  work  by  no  means  "came  of  itself."  It  was  t 
result  of  a  long  process  of  agitation  by  private  individuals,  prop 
ganda,  organization,  and  n^otiation  by  the  government,  ai 
even  in  the  production  of  munitions,  where  the  need  was  mc 
acute,  of  le^slation.  Besides  parliamentary  action  in  the  mur 
tions  industry,  agreements  between  employers  and  trade  unior 
local  committees  on  women's  war  employment,  "Womer 
County  Agricultural  Committees,"  and  a  "Shops"  and  a  "Qeric 
Occupations"  ccmimittee  of  the  central  government  were  tl 
chief  agencies  promoting  a  greater  utilizatiwi  of  the  servio 
of  women. 

Munitions  Work 

A  prime  purpose  of  the  well  known  munitions  acts,  which  pi 
a  new  aspect  on  many  of  the  relations  between  employers,  en 
ployes,  and  the  st»te,  was  the  abrogation  of  trade  union  rule 
restricting  the  employment  of  women. 

The  change  thus  made  compulsory  on  the  industry  was  know 
as  the  "dilution"  of  skilled  labor  by  less  skilled— which,  accord 
ing  to  official  definition,  "fundamentally  means  increased  em 
ployment  of  women  with  a  view  to  releasing  men."»  The  "dilu 
tion"  movement  is  one  of  the  most  far-reaching  labor  develop 
ments  of  the  war.  alike  in  the  industrial  transformation  entailed 
m  the  change  in  the  status  of  women  workers,  and  in  its  probabl 
after-war  consequences.  The  events  leading  up  to  the  passagi 
of  the  acts,  and  the  subsequent  recruiting  of  women,  form  i 
fkscinating  chapter  in  English  industrial  history. 

tob^,T916f p'e"  ^'"■'"■y  °'  Munitions,  Dilution  of  Labour  Bulletin.  Oc 


WOMKN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


45 


The  increasing  demand  for  munitions  found  workmen  in  the 
"engineering"  (roughly,  the  machinists')  trade,  thoroughly 
organized,  mainly  in  the  Amalgamated  Society  of  Engineers. 
This  was  one  of  the  strongest  unions  in  the  skilled  crafts,  having 
a  mehibership  of  174.253  in  1914.  The  A.  S.  E.,  as  it  is  famil- 
iarly called,  did  not  admit  women,  and  its  rules  among  other 
things  restricted  the  kinds  of  work  which  could  be  done  by 
women,  unskilled  men,  and  non-unionists,  limited  the  amount  of 
overtime,  and  the  number  of  machines  to  be  tended  by  a  single 
worker.  In  D«. ember,  1914,  shortage  of  labor  and  the  expand- 
ing demand  caused  the  employers'  federation  in  the  engineering 
trades  to  ask  the  unions  to  give  up  these  rules  during  the  war 
period,  but  the  negotiations  which  followed  were  fruitless.  About 
this  time  the  "industrial  truce"  was  broken  by  the  great  strike 
of  engineers  on  the  Clyde,  when  their  demand  for  a  raise  of  pay 
at  the  expiration  of  their  wage  agreement  was  refused. 

Labor  unrest,  charges  that  employes  lost  much  time  from 
work— in  many  cases,  it  was^said,  because  of  drink— and  diffi- 
culties in  getting  a  sufficient  supply  of  munitions,  caused  the 
government  to  appoint,  on  February  15,  1915.  a  "Committee  on 
Production  in  Engineering  and  Shipbuilding"  "to  inquire  and 
report  .  .  .  as  to  the  best  steps  to  be  taken  to  ensure  that 
the  productive  power  of  the  employes  in  engineering  and  ship- 
building establishments  working  for  government  purposes  shall 
be  available  so  as  to  meet  the  tfeeds  of  the  nation  in  the  present 
emergency." 

^^  The  second  report  of  the  committee,  issued  February  20,  on 
"Shells  and  Fuses,"  recommended  as  methods  of  increasing  pro- 
duction, first,  that  the  workers  should  cease  to  restrict  earnings 
and  output,  in  return  for  which  no  attempts  to  cut  piece  rates 
should  be  allowed,  and  second,  that  "there  should  be  n  exten- 
sion of  the  practice  of  employing  female  labor  on  this  work 
under  suitable  and  proper  conditions."  The  third  report,  issued 
March  20.  made  an  analogous  recommendation  that,  with  proper 
safeguards  to  protect  union  interests,  a  greater  use  should  be 
made  of  unskilled  and  semi-skilled  labor  during  the  war. 


4« 


KCONOMIC  BrFBCTS  OF  THE  WAK 


Th«  "Trtatury  Agregmgnt" 
The  next  step  toward  "dilutiwi"  was  the  calling  of  a  conf 
ence  of  representatives  of  the  chief  unions  doing  war  work,  whi 
met  with  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  Lloyd  George,  a 
the  president  of  the  Board  of  Trade  on  March  17,  1915.'  ' 
women's  labor  organizations  were  represented.  At  the  cc 
ference  Lloyd  George  showed  that  the  need  for  munitions  w 
greater  than  had  in  any  way  been  anticipated,  and  begged  t 
unions  to  give  up  all  restrictions  on  output  and  to  submit 
disputes  to  arbitration  during  the  war  period.  In  return,  t 
government  would  take  control  of  the  esUUishnienU  affect* 
and  would  limit  their  profits.  A  committee  of  trade  unionis 
also  having  no  women  members,  was  then  appointed  to  draw 
proposals  embodying  these  principles.  Their  work  is  embodi 
in  the  so  called  "Treasury  Agreement,"  whidi  was  accepted  ( 
March  19,  191 S,  by  all  the  union  representatives  present,  exct 
those  of  the  Amalgamated  Society  of  Engineers. 

The  clauses  which  permitted  the  increased  employment 
women  included  the  following  provisions:  Each  union  w 
recommended  "to  take  into  favorsAle  consideration  such  chang 
in  woricing  conditiwis  or  trade  customs  as  may  be  necessary  wi 
a  view  to  accelerating  the  output  of  war  munitions  or  equi 
ments."  provided  the  government  imposed  on  contractors  f 
munitions,  war  equipment,  or  "<^her  work  required  for  the  sati 
factory  completion  of  the  war,"  certain  conditions  intended  i 
saf^;uard  the  unions  and  their  wage  rates.  All  changes  wei 
to  be  only  fw  the  war  period,  and  should  "not  prejudice  tl 
position  of  the  woricpeople  .  .  .  or  of  their  trade  unior 
in  regard  to  resuming  jwe-war  rules  or  customs  after  the  war. 
After  the  war  also  preference  of  emfJoyment  should  be  give 
workers  who  had  enlisted  or  who  were  employed  at  the  time  tli 
agreement  was  made.  When  semi-skilled  men  were  introduce 
on  work  formerly  done  by  skilled  men,  "the  rates  paid  shall  t 
the  usual  rates  of  the  district  for  that  class  of  work."  Mon 
over,  "the  relaxation  of  existing  demarcation  restrictions  or  a(i 


WOMRN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


47 


mission  of  semi-skilled  or  female  labor  shall  not  affect  adversely 
the  rates  ctutcnnarily  paid  for  the  job."  A  record  of  all  changes 
was  required  to  be  kept,  open  to  government  inspection,  and 
"due  notice"  of  intended  changes  was  to  be  given  "where  prac- 
ticable," with  opponunity  for  consultation  by  the  workers  or 
their  representatives,  if  desired. 

However,  an  agreement  of  this  kind  to  which  the  Amalgamated 
Society  of  Engineers  had  refused  assent  was  not  a  little  Uke 
the  play  of  Hamlet  with  Hamlet  left  out.  Further  negotiati(xis 
were  immediately  held  with  the  A.  S.  E.,  and  on  March  25, 
when  certain  additional  safeguards  had  been  added,  they  likewise 
accepted  the  agreement.  The  additions  pledged  the  government 
to  limit  pn^ts  in  the  shops  where  unicm  rules  had  been  given 
up  "with  a  view  to  securing  that  benefit  resulting  .  .  .  shall 
accrue  to  the  State,"  and  to  use  its  influence  in  the  restoration 
of  trade  union  conditions  after  the  war.  The  restrictions  were 
to  be  removed  solely  on  work  "for  war  purposes,"  and  the  work- 
ers might  demand  a  certificate  to  that  effect  from  the  government 
department  concerned.  Most  important  of  these  additions  in 
view  of  the  sweeping  changes  taking  place  in  the  engineering 
industry  was  the  clause  to  the  effect  that  where  new  inventions 
were  introduced  during  the  war,  the  class  of  workmen  to  be 
employed  wi  them  after  the  war  "should  be  determined  accord- 
ing to  the  practice  prevailing  before  the  war  in  the  case  of  the 
class  of  work  most  nearly  analogous." 

In  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the  agreement  an  advisory 
committee  of  labor  representatives  was  apix)inted,  to  help  in 
carrying  out  its  recommendations,  and  several  local  "munitions 
committees"  representing  employers,  employes,  and  the  public 
were  formed  for  the  same  purpose. 

But  it  is  claimed  of  the  "Treasury  Agreement"  that  "except 
in  so  far  as  it  prepared  the  mind  of  the  worker  for  later  com- 
pulsion, the  agreement  completely  failed  to  achieve  its  purpose. 
The  main  cause  of  this  failure  was  a  feeling  on  the  part  of  the 
men  that  they  were  being  called  upon  to  surrender  what  thev 


^  ecoNOMic  KFricTs  or  the  wa« 

regarded  as  their  heritage,  without  the  empteyers  being  cal 
upon  to  make  any  corresponding  sacrifice."* 

At  any  rate,  the  agreement  was  tried  but  httie  more  than  thi 
months  before  it  was  superseded  by  legislation.  A  coaliti 
ministry  which  the  Ubour  Pa^y  entered  was  formed  in  M« 
The  shortage  of  munitions,  which  hindered  the  spring  advar 
and  wh.ch  had  been  brr«ght  forcibly  to  general  attention  throu, 
the  loss  of  hfe  in  the  battle  of  Neuve  Chapelle.  was  one  of  t 
chief  causes  for  the  fall  of  the  Liberal  Party.  In  June  a  "Mi 
istry  of  Munitions"  was  created,  and  Lloyd  George  was  mm 
minister. 

The  Mufutions  Acts 
The  first  munitions  of  war  act  was  passed  July  2  1915  •  I( 
purpose  as  expressed  in  its  title  was  "to  make  provision  for  f« 
thering  the  efficient  manufacture,  transport  and  supply  of  mun 
tions  for  the  present  war."  It  was  drafted  with  the  active  cc 
operation  of  the  Labour  Advisory  Committee,  and  was  approve 
before  passage  by  the  majority  of  a  conference  of  represents 
tives  of  umons  in  the  munitions  industry.  The  radicals  clair 
that  the  bill  was  passed  primarily,  not  so  much  to  give  a  lega 
sanction  to  "dilution"  as  to  prohibit  strikes  and  to  minimize  th^ 
leaving  of  munitions  work  by  individuals.' 

As  amended  in  'anuary.  1916.  the  possible  scope  of  i^t  ac 
was  wide.  It  mi«i,t  cover,  to  name  the  principal  ite,  an, 
articles    mtended  or  adapted  for  use  in  war,"  any  me  na- 

chines,  tools,  or  materials  required  for  their  manuf  .ire  oi 
repair,  any  construction  or  repair  of  buildings  for  military  pur- 
poses, and  even  the  erection  of  houses  intended  for  munition 
workers,  and  the  supply  of  heat,  light,  water,  power  and  tramway 
facihties  for  munitions  work.  A  commentator  has  said  that  it 
^  .^United  states  Bureau  of  Ubor  SUtisfc,  Monthly  RcvUw.  June.  ir:7. 
»  5  and  6  Geo.  S,  ch.  54. 
» Labour  Year  Book,  1916,  p.  63. 


WOMEN  AND  CHIM}KEN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


49 


includnl  practically  "all  work  intended  to  aid  the  warlike  opera- 
tioni  in  any  way."' 

Whatever  it»  primary  purpose,  the  act  contained  important 
•tections  relating  to  the  cbandunment  of  union  rules  and  the  dilu- 
tiim  of  labor.  The  Minister  of  Munitions  might  declare  any 
establishment  in  which  munitions  work  was  carried  on,  including 
(government  plants,  a  "controlled  establishment."  In  such  an 
establishment  all  trade  union  restrictions  were  to  be  given  up, 
and  on  the  other  hand  the  employer's  profits  were  limited  to  a 
maximum  of  one-fifth  more  than  the  average  tor  the  two  years 
Ijefore  the  war.  In  February,  1917,  there  were  reported  to  be 
4.285  "controlled"  establishments  and  103  government  munition 
factories.  The  rules  and  safeguards  relating  to  the  abandon- 
ment of  trade  union  restrictions  were,  word  for  word,  those  of 
the  "Treasury  .Agreement."'  The  maximum  penalty  for  vio- 
lating the  r^ulations  was,  for  the  workman  £3  ($14.40),  and 
for  the  employer  £50  (about  $240).  The  rest  of  the  act  was 
for  the  war  period  wily,  but  the  "dilution"  clauses  held  for  a 
year  after  the  end  of  the  war,  for  the  purpose,  olnnously,  of 
tiding  over  the  demobilization  period  and  making  effective  the 
government  pledge  of  a  restoration  of  trade  union  rules  and  the 
dismissal  of  the  women  and  unskilled  men.  But  it  will  be  noted 
that  there  was  no  reference  to  the  provisions  of  the  agreement 
with  the  Amalgamated  Society  of  Engineers  supplementary  to  the 
"Treasury  Agreement."  In  this  omission  it  would  seem  that 
the  unions  had  seriously  weakened  their  weapons  for  ensuring 
restoration  of  their  rules  and  customs  after  the  war.  The  im- 
portance of  the  "new  machines"  clause  has  already  l)een  dis- 
cu.'ssed,  and  the  specific  pledge  of  the  government  to  aid  in  re- 
storation might  also  have  been  of  value. 

Organisation  for  "Dilution"  under  the  Munitions  Acts 

The  Ministry  of  Munitions  immediately  began,  during  the 
summer  of  1915,  to  develop  an  elaborate  organization  for  in- 


'Thomas  A.  Fyfe.    Emploxers  and  H'orhwcn  under  the  Munitions  of  IKiir 
Acts,  igij  and  igi6.  p.  22. 

'  Found  in  "Schedule  II."  supplementary  tf>  the  first  munitions  act. 


10 


I'COKOMIC  irriCTR  or  THK  WAR 


WMing  pn,  I  Kiion  and  for  "dilotwn'  and,  u  Hm  been  not< 
by  the  fall  oi  1  :'l  ;he  great  runh  of  women  into  munition*  wo 
was  under  way.  -ides  numerout  departments  dealing  with  t 
various  bra  '  .  iroduction  from  the  technical  side,  the  Mi 
Mtry  i.rgan ./  .  lu  ^e  labor  department.  One  action,  call 
the  "Lai  -  k,  g  j'  it  n  Department."  dealt  with  working  con' 
tions  aw  n.l  lis-,  aes.  THe  other  section  was  the  "Ubo 
Supply  D.  i..:n^.r.  which  hftd  charge  of  "dilution"  And  tl 
iiT)pIy  of  (  .u.  i,.  ,  gani«inf  the  production  of  munitions  tl 
country  V  .,      v,.-,,i    Mn  '  .  .*  d.stricti,  and  in  Augu. 

iyi5,  the  .\  ,.      o  .„  \    ,,       .„  appomted  three  commissione: 
m  each  d,  i.    •  .,  Jilution." 

As  a  fun'  r  aid  1 .  .ational  Advisory  Conrniittee,"  whi( 
had  helped  cnft  tht  T  .ury  Agreement"  and  the  munitioi 
act,  was  enl  <fr!  tu  uul.id.  .additional  labor  members,  represei 
tatives  of  the  Ministry  of  Wunitions,  and  others,  and  became  th 
"Central  Lal>oor  Supply  Cotnmittee,"  whose  purpose  was  "I 
advise  and  assist"  the  Ministry  of  Munitions  regarding  the  "ma 
productive  use  of  all  available  labor  supplies."'  "Local  Ac 
visory  Boards"  of  labor  representatives  were  also  appointed  1 
help  the  central  committee. 

However  the  ofRcials  on  whom  fell  the  brunt  of  the  work  o 
increasmg  Vlilution"  in  individual  shops  were  the  "dilutioi 
officers"  of  the  Ubour  Supply  Department.  These  official 
went  from  establishment  to  establishment,  finding  out  th 
employer's  needs  in  the  way  of  labor  and  working  out,  with  hi 
cooperation  if  possible,  plans  by  which  the  use  of  unskilled  labor 
especially  woman  labor,  could  be  extended.  The  "dilution  offi 
ccr"  reported  to  the  central  authorities  and  was  advised  to  submi 
all  plans  to  them  for  approval.  In  case  complaints  were  mad 
that  women  were  not  doing  satisfactory  work,  where  the  use  ol 
women  was  not  progressing  as  rapidly  as  desirable;  or  if  then 
was  difficulty  in  finding  suitable  women  workers  a  woman  dilu 
tion^  officer  might  he  sent  to  straighten  out  the  difficulty.'  Th« 
'  UboMT   Year  Book.  1016,  p.  TO 


WOMCN  Am  CHIUMUtN  IN  CItlAT  BRITAIN 


51 


wumcn  officera  wttx  alao  tent  to  investigmtc  where  women  were 
being  UMd  for  the  Ant  time  "in  order  to  ensure  a  good  begin- 
ning," and  in  tome  cues  they  tdriied  on  the  suitability  of  work 
before  w  jmen  were  tried. 

VVhik  the  government  gained  the  legal  power  to  force  dilu- 
tion on  nuinitions  work  through  the  first  munitions  act,  "in 
practice  it  has  been  found  necessary,  almost  without  exception 
to  proceed  by  way  of  negotiation."'  The  London  Times  com- 
plained, in  the  sprinj'  of  1917,  that  after  "the  suspension  during 
the  war  of  all  restrictions  on  output  having  been  first  agreed  with 
the  trade  uniuns  and  then  passed  into  law ,  the  Ministry,  instead 
of  securing  that  these  restrictions  were  in  fact  removed,  pro- 
ceeded to  debate  them  'from  town  to  town,  from  kMlge  to  lodge, 
and  from  works  to  work*,*  "•  But  those  administering  the  act 
gave  instances  in  which  the  men  refused  to  obey  compulsory 
awards  suspending  trade  union  rules  made  without  their  cow- 
sent,  and  believed  that  "it  is  impoMible  to  set  these  practices  aside 
except  on  the  basis  of  their  vohmtzty  suspension,  first  by  the 
representatives  of  all  labor  and  then  bv  the  actual  workers  them- 
selves."' 

At  all  events,  the  instructions  sent  by  the  Ministry  of  Muni- 
tions in  Noven4ier,  191. S.  to  employers  in  controlled  establish- 
ments, outlining  the  steps  to  be  taken  in  effecting  dilution,  stressed 
the  importance  of  consulting  the  workers,  and,  if  possible,  of 
obtaining  their  cooperation  The  workmen  should  be  asked  t'> 
form  a  "deputation"  which  might  include  their  union  officials  if 
desired.  Any  proposei*.  change  should  be  explained  to  this  body 
and  its  consent  secured,  if  possible.  Only  in  the  event  that  an 
agreement  could  not  be  reached  either  with  the  deputation  or 
with  the  local  trade  union  officials,  should  the  change  be  put  into 
effect  and  the  dispiir*  settled  under  the  comrnilsory  arbitration 
claases  of  the  muniiions  act.    In  addition  "before  female  labor 

•United  Slam  Bureau  of  I^bor  Statiitirs.  Memtkly  Revitv,  Jum    1<»17,  p^ 
ISc5. 

*  London  Timtj,  weekly  edition.  May  4.  1917. 


52 


ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 


is  hereafter  employed  in  the  highly  skilled  branches  of  the  engi- 
neering trade  the  proposal  of  the  employer  in  question  should 
be  submitted  to  the  Ministry  for  approval." 

Propaganda  by  the  Ministry  of  Munitions 
Besides  its  legal  powers,  if  "dilution  officers,"  and  its  various 
advisory  boards,  the  Ministry  of  Munitions  carried  on  by  a  num- 
ber of  devices  what  was  to  all  intents  and  purposes  an  advertis- 
ing campaign  to  secure  the  utmost  possible  extension  of  female 
labor  in  diluting  male  labor.    Over  and  above  its  numerous 
official  instructions,  the  Ministry  has  published  not  a  little  propa- 
ganda material.    In  February,  1916,  a  large  illustrated  booklet 
was  issued,  "Notes  on  the  Employment  of  Women  on  Munitions 
of  War,  with  an  Appendix  on  the  Training  of  Munition  Work- 
ers."   It  conUined  photographs  and  descriptions  of  processes  on 
which  women  were  then  employed.    Its  purpose,  as  given  in  a 
preface  by  Lloyd  George  himself,  was  as  follows: 

This  book  has  been  prepared  by  an  expert  engineer,  who 
at  mv  request  visited  workshc^  in  various  parts  of  the 
countnr  where  the  *lution  of  skilled  labor  is  in  artual  oper- 
ation. It  illustrates  some  of  the  operations  which  wanen, 
with  the  loyal  cooperation  and  splendid  assistance  of  the 
workmen  concerned,  are  performing  in  engineermg  shops 
in  many  parts  of  the  kingdom.  ^       .  ..  t 

The  photc^aphic  records  and  the  written  descriptions  of 
what  is  actually  being  done  by  womtn  in  munition  factories, 
on  processes  hitherto  perfomwd  solely  by  skilled  men,  will, 
I  believe,  act  as  an  incentive  and  a  guide  in  many  factories 
where  employers  and  employed  have  been  skeptical  as  to  the 
possibilities  of  the  policy  of  dilution. 

Being  convinced  that  until  that  policy  is  boldly  adopted 
throughout  the  country  we  can  not  provide  our  armies  with 
such  an  adequate  supply  of  munitions  as  will  enable  them  to 
bring  this  war  to  an  early  and  successful  conclusion.  I  very 
earnestly  commend  this  book  to  the  most  serious  considera- 
tion of  employers  and  employes. 

January  28,  1916.  D.  Lloyd  George. 

>A  comment  on  the  publication  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  woman 
trade  unionist  may  1«:  of  interest.    It  is  to  be  found  in  /  hr  Woman  Worker, 


M 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDHEN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


S3 


Beginning  with  October,  1916,  dilution  officers  were  aided  by 
an  illustrated  monthly,  Dilution  Bulletin.  Aside  from  instruc- 
tions to  the  "D.  O.'s"  as  to  reports  and  procedure,  the  periodical 
was  practically  given  over  to  descriptions  of  the  work  women 
were  doing,  and  exhortations  to  the  dilution  officers  to  promote 
the  use  of  still  more  women  on  munitions  work.  "Process 
Sheets,"  containing  details  of  operations  successfully  carried  on 
by  women,  were  also  issued.  A  special  collection  of  photographs 
of  women  workers  was  likewise  available  for  the  use  of  dilution 
officers,  and  was  said  to  have  been  effective  in  convincing  skep- 
ticitl  employers  that  they  could  use  women.  Expert  women 
"demonstrator-operatives"  might  be  secured  by  the  dilution 
officers  either  to  act  as  pacemakers  in  speeding  up  production  or 
to  demonstrate  that  a  particular  job  lay  within  women's  powers. 
In  the  spring  of  1917,  the  Ministry  developed  still  another 
method  of  propaganda,  namely,  an  exhibition  of  women's  work 
which  was  shown  in  different  industrial  centers. 

The  results  of  all  this  activity  in  the  rising  numbers  of  women 
munition  workers  have  already  been  pointed  out.  The  gain  dur- 
ing the  war  of  308,000  in  the  metal  trades,  over  three  times  the 
pre-war  level,  the  introduction  of  25,000  wome.    into  Woolwich 


the  organ  of  the  National  Federation  of  Women  Workers,  for  March,  1916, 
and  is  called  "Lloyd  George's  Picture  Book." 

Our  women  munitwn  makers  ought  to  be  proud :  "Mr.  Lloyd  George 
has  brought  out  a  picture  book  about  theml"  It  is  a  large,  handsome 
book,  costing  Is.,  entirely  full  of  pictures  of  women  workers  and  all 
the  processes  they  can  da  According  to  Mr.  Lloyd  George,  never  were 
there  such  useful  workers  as  women  munition  workers.  He  says  they 
can  do  brazing  and  soldering,  they  can  make  8-in.  H.  E.  shells,  they  can 
drill  8-pounder  shells,  and  some  of  them  are  very  successful  in  making 
high  explosive  shells.  _ 

Well,  it  is  very  nice  to  be  praised  by  so  important  a  man,  and  it  is 
even  nicer  that  he  should  take  the  trouble  to  have  a  book  filled  with 
pictures  of  the  girts  at  work.  We  women,  however,  have  always  had  in 
our  minds  a  lurking  suspicion  that  we  were,  after  all,  as  clever  as  the  men, 
and  it  is  pleasant  enough  to  hear  Mr.  Lloyd  George  say  so.  But 
there  is  a  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  all  this.  H  girls  are  as  important 
and  as  clever  as  the  men,  then  they  are  as  valuable  to  the  employer.  If 
this  is  so  it  becomes  a  duty  of  the  girls  to  see  now  and  always,  whether 
on  government  work  or  not,  that  they  receive  the  same  pay  ss  the  men. 
Otherwise,  all  their  cleverness  and  their  intelligence  go  to  helping  the 
employer  and  bringing  down  the  wages  of  their  husbands,  fathers,  and 
brothers. 


54  ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAE 

I  K  i«rh«   80  oer  cent  Of  the  employes  must  be  women, 

Department  as  to  the  proportion  of  women.  «ni-A^Ued  and  un 
Sd  males  must  be  obeyed.  Nevertheless,  m  Ma^.  19^7.  rt 
lid  be  said  that  "we  have  by  no  means  «**^  *«^^*»^  j 
^nnasibiUties  of  employing  women  m  connection  with  war 
w^"^^!  "May  the  tL:  complained  that  only  a  f  ractionc* 
r^pla^ent  wWch  had  been  proved  possible  had  actually  been 

"ti*the  summer  of  1917  pressure  was  still  being  broi^t  to 
bear  for  a  larger  use  of  women,  and  while  in  Ammcj  m  N^em- 
hT  Mr   G  H.  BaiUie,  the  "Chief  Technical  Dilution  Officer 
^flh^LLfsupply  Wtment.  said  that  "dilution"  was  still 

progressing  on  a  large  scale. 

"Dilution"  in  Other  Industries  by  Trade  Union  Agreement 
In  a  number  of  other  trades  beside,  engineering  whereunion 
rules  uindered  the  replacement  of  men  by  -«"-•  ^^"^ 
were  reached  between  employers  and  employes  which  permitted 
rbrtitution  during  the  war  period.  The  ^^^^^Zioi 
the  subject  of  legislation,  but  were,  in  most  cas«8.  the  result  of 
Ide  If  erenc«  called  jointly  by  the  Board  of  Ti,de  and^^ 
Home  Office  at  the  request  of  the  Army  Counal.  The  purpose 
waTto^rganize  Th  industry  so  as  to  release  as  many  men 

"Zfon::a*g:riweremadeduringl915.    Among  the 

-T^eat  Britain  Ministry  of  Munition,.  DUuHon  of  Labour  BulUtin,  April. 

1917.  p.  82-  ...       ...  1017 

*  London  Times,  weekly  edition.  May  4,  1917. 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


55 


industries  covered  in  that  year  were  cotton,  hosiery,  leather, 
woolen  and  worsted,  silk  and  felt  hats,  printing,  bleaching  and 
dyeing,  woodworking,  biscuit,  pastry  baking,  wholesale  clothing, 
boot  making,  and  earthenware  and  china.  In  1916,  similar  agree- 
ments were  concluded  in  lace  making,  hosiery  finishing,  printing, 
silver-plate  and  cutlery,  and  brush  making. 

The  trade  imions  were,  on  the  whole,  as  unfavorable  to  the 
introduction  of  women  in  other -new  lines  as  they  were  in  muni- 
tions and  yielded  only  reluctantly,  under  pressure  of  the  neces- 
sities of  war.  They  frequently  alleged  that  a  given  kind  of 
work  was  unsuitable  for  wcmien  cm  moral  or  {rfiysical  grounds. 
But  their  real  objection  was  probably  the  fear  either  that  women 
would  lower  the  men's  wage  rates  directly,  or  that  the  existence 
of  a  reserve  of  experienced  female  labor  would  endanger  the 
men's  position  in  any  post-war  industrial  depressicHi. 

The  union's  point  of  view  is  revealed  in  the  conditions  which 
they  required  before  they  would  sign  substitution  agreements. 
"The  operatives,"  said  the  factory  inspectors,  "not  unnaturally 
asked  for  guarantees  that  those  who  left  to  join  the  Forces  should 
have  their  places  kept  open  for  them,  that  suspension  of  rules 
should  be  regarded  as  a  war  emergency  only,  that  there  should 
be  a  return  to  former  conditions  at  the  end  of  the  war,  and  that 
there  should  be  a  fair  settlement  of  the  wage  question  affecting 
the  emidoymen«^  of  wonv.a  or  other  labor  called  in  to  take  the 
place  of  the  men.'" 

The  conditions  of  the  agreement  made  in  June,  1915,  between 
unions  and  operators  in  the  leather  trade,  whose  needs  had  been 
greatly  increased  by  the  demand  for  military  equipment,  were 
typical  of  these  settlements,  and  of  the  precautions  taken  to  safe- 
guard the  regular  employes.  Women  were  to  be  allowed  on 
"men's  work"  during  the  war  period  when  men  could  not  be 
obtained.  Their  work  was,  however,  limited  to  operations  "they 
are  physically  fit  to  perform,"  they  were  to  be  paid  men's  rates, 
and  the  local  trade  union  officials  were  to  be  consulted  in  each 


'  Great  Britain  Home  Office,  Report  of  the  Chief  Inspector  of  Factories 
■<ih4  H'orkshops  for  igis,  p.  4. 


S6 


ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 


case  before  substitution  was  made.  When  men  and  women  were 
employed  in  the  same  department,  it  was  recommended  that  they 
be  separated,  as  far  as  possible.' 


Other  Measures  to  Increase  Substitution — Industrial 

The  activities  of  the  government  to  enlarge  the  scope  of 
women's  work  in  cases  where  no  trade  imion  rules  stood  in  the 
way  form  still  another  interesting  series  of  propaganda  efforts. 

The  first  such  attempt  was  a  scheme  of  national  voluntary 
registration  for  women,  begun  in  March,  1915.  Stating  that  its 
object  was  to  find  out  what  reserve  of  woman  labor  could  be 
made  available  if  required,  the  government  invited  all  women 
who  were  "prepared,  if  needed,  to  accept  paid  work  of  any  kind — 
industrial,  agricultural,  clerical,  etc., — to  enter  themselves  upon 
the  register  of  women  for  war  sen-ee  at  the  labor  exchanges." 

The  appeal  caused  many  protests  among  representatives  of 
labor,  first  because  there  was  still  believed  to  be  much  unemploy- 
ment among  women  wage  earners,  and  second,  because  of  the 
failure  to  propose  any  safeguards  to  ensure  good  working  con- 
ditions or  "equal  pay  for  equal  work."  It  was  charged  that  the 
farmers'  union  was  behind  the  plan  and  that  it  was  trying  to 
get  cheap  woman  labor  instead  of  raising  the  v.ages  of  the  men. 

The  War  Emergency  Woricers'  National  Committee  immedi- 
ately passed  a  resolution  pointing  out  "that  there  are  still  60,000 
men  and  boys  and  40,000  women  and  girls  on  the  live  register 
of  the  labor  exchanges.  .  .  .  The  committee  is  strongly 
of  opinion  that  in  drafting  women  into  any  industries  care  must 
be  taken  to  prevent  the  stereotyping  of  bad  conditions  and  low 
wages,  or  to  endanger  standard  conditions  where  they  obtain; 
that  this  should  be  secured  by  a  tribunal  representative  of  the 
organized  wage  earners — ^men  and  women ;  and  that  further 
efforts  should  be  made  to  find  situations  for  those  persons  now 
o;  the  register  before  taking  steps  to  bring  in  fresh  supplies  of 
female  labor." 


"i      i 


«  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  Credit,  Industry  and 
the  War,  p.  151. 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT   BRITAIN 


57 


The  Woman's  Freedom  League,  a  suffrage  society,  issued  a 
strong  protest  along  similar  lines,  with  the  emphasis  on  "equal 
pay  for  equal  work." 

The  Women's  Freedom  League  are  glad  to  note  the  tardy 
recognition  by  the  government  of  the  value  of  women's 
work  brought  before  the  country  in  their  schemes  of  war 
service  for  women.  We  demand  from  the  government, 
however,  certain  guarantees. 

Firstly,  that  no  trained  woman  employed  in  men's  work 
be  given  less  pay  than  that  given  to  men. 

Secondly,  that  some  consideration  be  given  when  the  war 
is  over  to  the  women  who  during  the  war  have  carried  on 
this  necessary  work. 

Thirdly,  that  in  case  of  training  being  required  proper 
maintenance  be  given  to  the  woman  or  girl  while  that  train- 
ing is  going  on. 

Recognizing  that  the  government's  scheme  offers  a  splen- 
did opportunity  for  raising  the  status  of  women  in  industry, 
we  urge  that  every  woman  should  now  resolutely  refuse 
to  undertake  any  branch  of  work  except  for  equal  wages 
with  men.  By  accepting  less  than  this  women  would  be 
showing  themselves  disloyal  to  one  another,  and  to  the  men 
who  are  serving  their  country  in  the  field.  These  men  should 
certainly  be  safeguarded  on  their  return  from  any  under- 
cutting by  women. 

The  "War  Register"  having  brought  the  question  of  increased 
employment  of  women  to  the  front,  on  April  1"  the  workers' 
national  committee  called  a  national  conference  of  trade  unions 
with  women  members  and  other  women's  labor  organizations 
at  which  the  chief  resolution  demanded  "that  as  it  is  imperative 
in  the  interests  of  the  highest  patriotism  that  no  emergency  action 
be  allowed  unnecessarily  to  depress  the  standard  of  living  of  the 
workers  or  the  standard  of  working  conditions,  adequate  safe- 
guards must  be  laid  down  for  any  necessan,-  transference  or 
substitution  of  lalwr."  The  safeguards  outlined  included  mem- 
bership in  the  appropriate  trade  union  as  a  prerequisite  for  war 
senice,  "equal  pay  for  equal  work,"  no  war  employment  at  less 
than  a  living  wage,  maintenance  with  training  where  necessary, 


i 


SB 


ECONOMIC  XFFXCTS  OF  THB  WAK 


preference  being  given  in  this  to  unemployed  women  who  were 
normally  wage  earners,  and  reinstatement  of  the  displaced  men 
at  the  end  of  the  war,  with,  at  the  same  time,  "guaranteed  em- 
ployment" to  the  discharged  women. 

The  "War  Register"  did  not,  after  all,  prove  to  be  of  much 
importance  in  the  extension  of  women's  employment  Though 
33,000  women  registered  within  a  fortnight,  and  110,714  during 
the  whole  period  of  registration,  up  to  the  middle  of  September, 
jcAs  were  found  for  only  5,511  of  them,*  because,  it  was  said, 
they  lacked  the  necessary  skill  to  fill  the  vacancies  for  which  they 
were  wanted.' 

Much  more  effective  than  the  war  register  was  the  work  of  the 
interdepartmental  committee  of  the  Home  Office  and  the  Board 
of  Trade  appointed  in  November,  1915,  "to  consider  the  ques- 
tion of  utilizing  to  the  full  the  reserve  of  women's  labor."'  The 
committee  worked  principally  through  local  committees,  which 
were  at  work  in  thirty-seven  towns  in  November,  1916.  The 
members  of  these  committees  were  "chosen  for  their  interest  in 
women's  employment,"  and  included  employers,  employes,  and 
representatives  of  such  societies  as  the  Young  Women's  Chris- 
tian Association  and  the  Women's  Cooperative  Guild.  An 
officer  of  the  local  employment  exchange  acted  as  secretary  of 
each  such  committee,  and  representatives  of  the  Home  Office 
and  the  Board  of  Trade  attended  its  meetings  "in  a  consultative 
capacity." 

The  work  of  the  ccMnmittees  varied  according  to  local  needs, 
and  included  efforts  to  keep  up  the  suj^ly  of  women  in  their 
normal  occupations  as  well  as  to  secure  substitutes  for  men's 
work.  In  several  textile  towns  a  shortage  of  workers  in  the 
mills  was  relieved  by  securing  the  ser\-ices  of  women  formerly 
occupied,  who  were  now  living  at  hcwne.  In  one  town  enough 
women  were  obtained  by  a  house  to  house  canvass  to  restart  400 

» Labour  Year  Book,  1916,  p.  81. 

*  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  Criiit    Induttry, 
and  the  War,  p.  72. 

»  Labour  Gazette,  November,  1916,  p.  403. 


WOMEN  AND  CRIU»EN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


59 


looms.  An  appeal  for  women  workers  placed  in  the  Glasgow 
trams  brought  good  resulu.  In  places  where  there  were  many 
unemployed  or  unoccupied  women  the  local  committee  tried  to 
persuade  some  of  them  to  migrate  to  places  needing  additional 
labor.  In  Cambridge,  for  instance,  several  meetings  were  held 
for  this  purpose  and  a  loan  fund  for  traveling  expenses  was 
raised. 

Some  of  the  most  important  woric  of  the  local  committees  was 
done  in  munition  centers  where  it  was  necessary  to  bring  in 
women  workers.  In  such  places,  members  of  the  committee  met 
the  strangers  on  arrival,  took  them  to  suitable  lodgings,  and 
"initiated  schemes  for  their  welfare  outside  the  factory."  In 
Gloucester,  where  the  committee  investigated  lodgings  for  2,000 
women,  it  was  entrusted  by  the  Ministry  of  Munitions  with  es- 
tablishing a  temporary  hostel  for  wcmien  for  whom  lodgings 
could  not  be  found. 

The  committees  were  active  in  various  other  forms  of  "wel- 
fare work."  They  arranged  a  conference  of  "welfare  workers," 
and  fostered  the  introduction  of  factory  "canteens."  The  Wool- 
wich committee  started  a  club  and  recreation  ground  for  the 
women  employes  of  the  great  arsenal,  and  a  nursery  for  the 
children  of  employed  mothers. 

Several  towns  reported  "active  efforts."  including  conferences 
with  employers,  on  the  substitution  of  women  for  men.  Inter- 
esting woric  of  this  kind  was  done  in  Bristol  where  a  number  of 
unemployed  women  were  persuaded  to  train  for  "men's  work" 
in  the  shoe  trade. 

The  next  effort  by  the  two  departments  was  a  joint  appeal  to 
employers  to  keep  up  production  by  taking  on  women.  Noting 
that  there  were  already  complaints  of  a  labor  shortage  and  of 
idle  plants,  the  appeal  continued : 

There  is  one  source,  and  one  only,  from  which  the  short- 
age can  be  made  good— that  is  the  great  bodv  of  women 
who  are  at  present  unoccupied  or  engaged  only' in  work  not 
of  an  essential  character.  Many  of  these  women  have 
worked  in  factories  and  have  already  had  an  industrial 


60  ICOKOmc  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAS 

training— they  form  an  asset  of  immenie  importance  to  the 
country  and  every  effort  must  be  made  to  induce  those  who 
are  able  to  come  to  the  assistance  of  the  country  in  this 
crisis.  Previous  training,  however,  is  not  essential;  since 
the  outbreak  of  war  women  have  given  amjde  proof  of 
their  ability  to  fill  up  the  g^s  in  the  ranks  of  industry  and 
to  underUke  work  hitherto  regarded  as  men's.' 

Concerted  action  by  employers  was  necessary  to  reorganise 
their  work  so  as  to  use  the  maximum  number  of  women  and  to 
let  the  local  emfrfoyment  exchange  know  their  exact  requirements 
for  women.  The  Home  Office,  the  Board  of  Trade,  and  the  fac- 
tory inspectors  would  give  all  the  help  in  their  power  in  making 
any  such  rearrangements.  "We  are  confident  that  the  women  of 
the  country  will  respond  to  any  call  that  may  be  made,  but  the 
first  step  rests  with  the  employers— to  reorganize  their  work  and 
to  give  the  call." 

By  July,  1916,  the  Board  of  Trade  had  established  "an  infor- 
mation bureau  for  the  collection  and  circulation  of  information 
as  to  the  replacement  of  male  by  female  labor,"  and  soon  after, 
again  cooperating  with  the  Home  Office,  it  issued  a  series  of 
"Pamphlets  on  the  Substitution  of  Women  for  Men  in  Industry," 
describing,  branches  of  work  which  were  considered  suitable  by 
the  factory  inspectors  and  in  which  women  were  successfully 
employed.  The  twenty-seven  little  pamphlets  covered  trades  as  far 
out  of  women's  ordinary  field  as  brick  making,  "oil  seed  and 
feeding  cake,"  leather  tanning  and  curr>'ing,  and  flour,  as  well 
as  the  more  usual  clothing  and  cotton  trades.  Under  each  trade 
were  enumerated  the  processes  on  which  women  had  been  sub- 
stituted for  men,  opportunities  for  training,  and  aty  relaxation 
of  the  factory  acts,  or  of  trade  union  rules  which  favored  their 
employment.  The  results  of  this  propaganda  by  the  Home 
Office  and  the  Board  of  Trade  have  nowhere  been  exactly  esti- 
mated, but  whether  due  to  it,  or  ro  the  necessities  of  the  labor 
situation,  or  to  both,  it  was  soon  followed  by  a  marked  increase 
in  the  number  of  women  doing  men's  work. 

« Labour  Gazette.  March,  1916,  p.  83. 


,,,,, 


WOMEN  AND  CHtl.DRRN   IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


61 


In  September,  1916.  the  War  Office  took  a  hand  in  the  prop- 
aganda. Its  contribution  was  a  large  illustrated  pamphlet  list- 
ing occupations  on  which  women  were  successfully  employed 
The  purpose  of  the  book  was  primarily  to  guide  the  administra- 
tors of  the  conscription  act  and  to  reduce  the  number  of  exemp- 
tions from  military  service  on  the  grounds  of  industrial  in- 
dispensability.  Incidentally,  it  was  "offered  as  a  tribute  to 
(women's)  effective  contribution  to  the  Empire  in  its  hour  of 
need."  It  was  much  criticised  because  of  the  lack  of  discrimina- 
tion shmvn  in  recommending  certain  kinds  of  work.  It  would 
seem  that  the  heavy  lifting  involved  or  the  disagreeable  nature 
of  the  surroiuidings  made  such  work  as  loading  coal,  planks  and 
HMscellaneous  freight,  moving  coke  and  beer  barrels,  handling 
heavy  steel  bars,  stoking,  and  the  removal  of  leather  from  dip- 
ping beds  entirely  unsuitable  for  women.  But  much  of  the  work 
pictured,  sucn  as  reaping,  the  care  of  horses,  driving  a  steam 
roller,  and  bakery  work,  though  far  removed  from  the  usual 
lines  of  "women's  work,"  did  not  seem  to  be  objectionable.  Still 
other  occupations,  where  little  strength  and  considerable  skill 
were  required,  for  instance,  piano  finishmg  and  tuning,  making 
ammunition  boxes,  modeling  artificial  teeth,  repairing  railway 
carriage  seats,  and  the  preparation  of  soldiers'  dinners,  would 
seem  positively  desirable  additions  to  the  field  of  women's  work 

The  mosf  ambitious — and  probably  the  least  eflfective — of  the 
government's  attempts  to  keep  up  the  es.sential  industries  of  the 
country  under  war  conditions  was  the  "Xational  Service  De- 
partment," created  early  in  1917.  It  commandeered  a  hotel  for 
its  headquarters,  and  assembled  a  large  staff.  Through  this  de- 
partment it  was  planned  to  secure  the  enrollment  of  all  persons 
of  working  age.  who  were  then  to  be  transferred  to  "trades  of 
national  importancs."  if  not  already  so  employed.  Volunteers 
to  go  wherever  they  were  assigned  were  first  called  for,  and  as 
the  response  was  only  slight,  conferences  with  employers  and 
emplcAPs  were  begim  to  find  out  what  men  various  firms  could 
spare,  and  to  arrange  for  their  transference  to  essential  war 
work  by  the  "Substitution  Officers"  „{  the  Department.     The 


62 


BCONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WA« 


duplication  of  the  work  of  the  empteynioit  exchwiget  i»  evident. 
Enrollment  and  tnniference  were  to  be  purely  voluntary,  though 
among  the  labor  groupe  there  were  munnuring*  that  the  Kheme 
wai  but  a  prelude  to  indwtrial  coMcriptioo.  But  in  April  the 
plan  wai  called  a  "fmaco,"  and  it  waa  alleged  that  only  a  few 
hundred  plactmenti  had  actually  been  made.'  It  wai  later  char- 
acteriied  as  "out  of  the  prixe  futilities  of  the  whole  war." 
"National  .Service  ...  is  dead.  It  knows  that  it  is  dead. 
The  government  knows  that  it  is  dead.  And  all  other  people 
know  that  its  corpse  has  become  offensive  .  .  .  What  Na- 
tional Service  wants  is  not  a  hotel,  but  a  mortuary  chamber  and 
a  port-mortem."'  Just  before  this  time  a  "Woman's  Section" 
had  been  set  up  by  the  "Director  of  National  Service"  in  charge 
of  two  women  well  known  for  their  interest  in  the  problems  of 
women's  work,  Mrs.  A.  J.  Tennant  and  Miss  Violet  Markham, 
of  whom  it  was  said  that  they  had  been  "asked  to  bring  order 
out  of  chaos  at  the  eleventh  hour."* 

The  principal  achievement  of  the  section  up  to  November 
1917,  seems  to  be  the  fcMmation  of  the  apt  ial  corps  of  women 
with  its  own  women  officers  and  under  semi-tnilitary  discipline 
lor  work  behind  the  lines  in  France.  As  has  been  previously 
described,  several  thousand  women  work  tl.ere  as  postal  em- 
ployes, clerks,  cooks,  cleaners,  chauffeurs,  and  even  as  other 
sorts  of  mechanics.  Eartier  efforts  of  the  "Woman's  Section" 
for  another  registration  of  women  for  war  work  and  for  a  uni- 
formed "army"  of  women  for  agricultural  work  seem  to  have 
been  of  but  little  value. 

Other  Measures  to  Increase  Substitution — Trade  and  Commerce 
The  chief  governmental  reports  covering  non-industrial  lines 
of  work  are  those  of  the  "Shops  Committee"  and  the  "Clerical 
and  Commercial  Employments  Committee,"  both  formed  in  the 
spring  and  reporting  in  the  fall  of  191 5.    The  former  stated  that 

>  The  Ktw  SlaUsmoH,  April  7,  1917.  p.  4. 
«/>«.,  July  21,  1917.  p.  372. 

»  Tlu  IVomaK  tt'orker.  .^pfS.  1917. 


WOMBM  Ain>  CHILBRCN  IN  QRKAT  MITAIN 


63 


it  wu  organUed  to  tee  how  Lord  Kitchener's  demand  tor  "more 
men,  and  yet  more  men"  could  be  met  by  releasing  men  employed 
in  stores.  In  the  judgment  of  the  committee  very  few  men 
needed  to  be  reui.ied,  except  in  the  heavier  branches  of  the 
wholesale  t'^de.  The  committee  dinrtbuted  circulars  to  shop- 
keeper! throughout  the  country  asking  how  many  men  could  be 
released  for  the  army  and  calling  attentioit  to  the  emergency.  A 
large  meeting  of  repreientatives  of  the  unions  and  the  employers' 
associations  was  held  in  London  and  fifty-five  local  me  'Ings  for 
the  trade  through  the  country,  at  which  resolutions  were  passed 
pledging  those  present  "to  do  ever>thing  possible"  to  substitute 
women  for  men.  "What  we  feel  we  have  done,"  said  the  com- 
mittee, in  summing  up  its  work,  "is  to  bring  home  to  sho|>keeper8 
in  England  and  Wales  the  necessity  (and  the  possibility)  of 
rearranging  their  business  so  as  to  release  more  men  for  ser\-ice 
with  the  Colours." 

The  other  committee,  on  "Clerical  and  Commercial  Employ- 
ments." was  formed  to  work  out  a  plan  for  "an  adequate  supply 
of  competent  substitutes"  for  the  "very  large  number  of  men  of 
military  age"  still  found  in  commercial  and  clerical  work.  The 
committee  estimated  that  150,000  substitutes  must  be  secured, 
and  that  they  must  be  drawn  mainly  from  the  ranks  of  unoccu- 
pied women  without  previous  clerical  experience.  It  recom- 
mended the  securing  of  such  women  from  among  friends  and 
relatives  of  the  present  staffs,  the  starting  of  one  and  two  months' 
emergency  training  courses  by  the  education  authorities,  and  the 
placement  of  the  trained  women  through  coor^eration  with  the 
local  employment  exchanges.  The  committee  went  on  record  in 
favor  of  the  reinstate  Tient  of  the  enlisted  men  after  the  war.  and 
meanwhile  "equal  pay"  for  the  women  substitutes.  It  brought 
the  need  of  substitution  before  the  various  commercial  and  pro- 
fesMonal  associations  whose  members  made  use  of  clerical  help. 

Campaign  for  Substitution  in  Agrimlture 

Propaganda  efforts  in  agriculture  were  numerous,  but  judging 
from  the  comparatively  small  increase  in  the  number  of  women 


54  ECOMomc  nrPECT*  op  tub  wab 

woricer..  they  were  reUtively  •"•  "-^f  bSTcJlTrri^ 
•rv  .nd  trade  Prejudice  on  the  |»rt  of  both  country  women 
1^  1".  :..  hew  partly  n^>^.  but  th-  cH.ef  cau^  ^m. 
tohave  been  the  uilure  to  r.iK  wage,  nuterul  y  ,k  tu  nvrov. 
iving  condition..  Org«.i«ition  .lo^  nm.^  Th^^ 
vel«L  in  indu.try  by  the  Bcrd  of  Tr«le  wd  tl«  H«ne  Office 
r.r^e.1  out  by  the  Board  of  Tr.de  «.d  the  Bo«d  ol  Apv 

XeTn  the  .pring  of  1916.    "^<'^'\--^\';^'':^ 

^mittee."  were  formed  in  cJo.e  connection  w.th  the     war 

comminecB  ...      y^^u   haj  been  twgamied   in   each 

l^r^lZlZ.  :'«  nude  up  of  "district  repre^nU. 

S-wbo.  in  turn,  worked  through  kxa.  comnn««.  -    vd. 

L»  ri.«»trar«-  or  both.     In  the  late  autumn  of  1916  there  were 

S^  yS  clu  committee..  1.060  "district  repr«entat.ve. 

";Tover4.000  "village  registrar.."    '^^^^^^:^Z 

formed  a  panel  of  speaker,  for  meetmp.  and  Ae  B«*'^'>™' 

appointed  women  organi«r.  for  vanous  parU  o^**^°"^^ 

uSl  meetings  to  rou«  enthu.ia.m  were  followed  by  a  howe^ 

^duirianvass  in  which  women  were  urged  for  pajno^K^ 

tives  to  enroll  for  whole  or  part-time  work.    The  v  11^  reg^s 

rar  then  arranged  for  employment  of  the  -««''"J»»;J^^*; 

through  the  local  employment  exchange  or  a.  they  heard  ol 

acancies.     The  women  were  toM  that  "every  woman  who  helpi 

n'a^ilulturc  during  the  war  is  as  tnily  -rving  her  co^intr^ 

the  man  who  is  fighting  in  the  trenches  or  on  ^,^-  J^ 

registrant  was  emitled  to  a  certificate  and  after  thirty  ^.y.^ 

vice  might  wear  a  green  baize  armlet  marked  with  a  scark 

'Tring  the  season  of  1916  it  was  estimated  that  140.00 
women  re-istered.  Seventy-two  thousand  certificates  and  62.00 
I^e^s  w^l  issued.'  although  many  of  the  regular  wome 
™!ce:s  on  the  land  refused  to  register  for  ^-"^'^-^^^J 
some  way  liable  to  compulsorj^  ser^■lce.  ^^.^en  reg^tm. 
were  said  to  be  found  in  almost  every  kind  of  farm  work.  ev« 
To  ploughing,  but  were  naturally  more  often  successful  m  su, 

I  Labour  Gazette,  Februao'.  '"6,  p.  4J. 


WOHEM  AND  CIIIU)RE!«  IN  GREAT  BKITAtN 


65 


lighter  fonrn  m  we«d»in{.  (rujt  and  hop  picking,  the  care  of 
powJtry.  darry  work,  and  gardening  They  were  considered 
e«pecially  gcnn\  in  the  care  of  all  kinds  of  animals. 

The  elaliorafe  plan*  of  the  Kovemmem  and  the  low  wJiges 
paid  were  commentnl  nn  in  characteri<»iic  style  bv  Thf  lyoman 
IVorktr.' 

Women  on  the  Land 

It  ti>  announced  irt  the  pa|)er<t  that  the  ^nv  eminent  have 
decided  to  start  a  recnntini;  campaign  t'.>r  >\'>men  to  work 
'HI  the  bnd  FrMir  hundred  thousand  an-  wanted;  and  they 
are  to  be  regi-itered  and  t  •  be  given  an  annlct.  Now,  work 
on  the  land  unvM  \\<jrk,  an<l  niiH-h  o  it  is  Miitable  to 
women:  but  there  are  points  ab<>  \i  tliis  Mhcme  which  we 
shtrtild  do  well  to  l<»>k  at  It  is  aid  that  a  'epresentative 
of  tlie  Ftoard  of  Trade  -u  a  meeiiiii;  a'  ScariRiiough.  said 
that  the  wages  would  U  from  1J>,  i  >  i  lb.  Twelve  '.iU- 
ings  is  not  a  proper  living  wage  for  a  woman  ;  and  our  mas- 
ters seem  to  know  this.  The  Pmly  .\  .i«  in  explaining  the 
government  scheme,  says,  "It  is  frankly  j.-ini  n^d  th.H  unu-h 
of  the  most  net-essary  work  is  hard  and  u/n  I..is;mt.  and  iiy 
no  means  extravagantly  paid.  That  is  s.  '/\'  thr  (if>(>c'.U  is 
made  exchisively  to  the  patriotism  of  the  .i'«/<;.  m.  1  here 
is  m>  question  (as  in  the  army  ilsclf)  <>f  any  rcuJy  adequate 
re-c^-ard."  Well,  why  not?  The  farmers  are  doing  ven- 
vvdl.  The  price  t>f  corn  is  higher  than  has  ever  lieen  known 
heiore.  Why  should  women  lie  deprived  of  "any  really 
adequate  reward"? 

Wi.y  should  women  assist  in  keeping  ilown  the  miserably 
low  w.i^Tes  of  agricultural  laborers?  If  there  was  "no 
(|uestii>n.  as  in  the  amiy  itself,"  c'  any  really  ade(|uate 
profits,  then  there  mi^ht  be  something  to  be  said  for  the 
government.  .As  it  is.  no  armlets  and  no  "patriotism" 
ought  to  make  women  work  at  less  than  a  living  wage. 

In  January,  191",  the  Hoard  of  Agriculture  further  developed 
its  organization  by  starting  a  "Women's  Labour  Department." 
Organizing  secretaries  were  placed  in  the  coimties,  grants  were 
made  to  certain  voluntary  organizations,  and  sixteen  traveling 

'  The  Woman  Worker,  March,  1916,  p.  .V 


\i  ] 
I* 

11 


05  PXONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WA« 

r-^^  were  ^.  o.^  ^  zTT'JS  "uX:; 

of  what  was  accomplished  were  not  available  m  November  of 

**lSer  minor  but  interesting  developm«.t  of  1916  was  tf«t 
of^ganixed  gangs  of  women  farm  workers  «nderji  lead« 
tv^oi  th^were  successful  in  ^o^  P)"™'  ,!^ j^' 
different  farms  in  roUtion.  Others  cultivated  unused  allotment^ 
„dTas  e  lands.  The  principal  women's  colleges  provided 
So  -Vacation  land  workers"  in  gangs  for  fnut  picking  and 
the  like.  Two  successful  bracken-  itting  camps  were  a^so  mam- 
ufnlJ;  at  which  women  worked  for  eight  weeks  under  sem.- 

"  m'Uy  ^  organization  dealing  with  agricultural  work 
by  w^  prior  to  the  war  was  the  "Women's  Farm  and  Gard«. 
UnrcW^which  promoted  the  training  of  educated  women  for 
gardening.     In  February-.  1916,  this  body  secured  kmd  f or  a 
fining  school  from  the  Board  of  Agriculture  and  for"«d  ttfe 
"Women's  National  Land  Service  Corps."  which  was  joinedby 
about  2.000  women  in  the  course  of  a  year  or  more.    M«nbers 
received  six  weeks'  training  and  were  then  s^nt  out  to  the  farms 
preferably  in  groups  of  two  or  three  who  couldhve  m^  ^ge 
together,  "perhaps  with  a  friend  to  do  the  cooking.       p^trs 
lodged  in  the  villages  or  with  their  employers.    The  members  of 
the  Corps  were  said  to  be  "educated  girts  who  had  gone  mto  the 
woric  mostly  from  patriotic  morives."    Girls  entirely  dependent 
on  their  earnings  were  not  encouraged  to  jom.  '  because  of  the 
low  rate  of  pay."     The  Corps  refused  to  send  out  woricers,  it 
should  be  noted,  unless  the  pay  covered  living  expenses,  unless, 
considering  the  women's  ability  and  experience,  it  was  equal  to 
men's  rates,  or  if  their  workers  would  undercut  or  supplant  local 
women     The  Corps  believed  that  it  had  accomplished  more  than 
its  nunbers  would  indicate,  in  that  its  carefully  chosen  members 
had  often  convinced  doubtful  farmers  that  women  could  do  more 

I  Boston    Christian  Science  ^fomtc^r.  May  14.  1917. 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


67 


agi-;  Uinal  woric,  and  that  several  woricers  had  organized  the 
villnge  women  into  whole  or  part-time  gangs. 

In  the  siMing  of  1917,  the  National  Service  Department 
{banned  to  use  the  Corps  as  the  nucleus  for  a  "Wwnen's  Land 
Army."  Women  were  to  enlist  for  farm  woric,  and,  if  found 
suitable,  were  to  be  given  four  weeks'  training  with  pay,  and 
railway  fare  to  their  places  of  employment.  When  once  at  work 
they  were  not  to  be  allowed  to  leave  except  with  permission  of 
the  "district  representative."  But,  as  has  been  previously  stated, 
the  scheme  did  not  prove  effective. 

Summary 

In  trying  to  sum  up  from  an  American  point  of  view  the  value 
of  the  different  organized  attempts  to  extend  the  employment  of 
women  in  England,  it  is  well  to  note  that  what  was  probably 
their  most  important  and  certainly  their  most  difficult  problem, 
namely,  the  removal  of  trade  union  restrictions,  will  not  be  en- 
countered in  the  United  Sutes  in  as  definite  a  way.  American 
labor  organizations  have  not  as  generally  adopted  restrictive 
policies,  and  not  as  many  trades  are  strongly  organized.  Ac- 
cordingly perhaps  the  most  valuable  conclusions  America  can 
draw  from  the  situation  is  the  somewhat  general  one  of  the  wis- 
dom of  securing  the  cooperation  of  labor  in  making  industrial 
changes  by  which  it  is  vitally  affected.  In  industry  a  system  of 
local  representative  ccMnmittees  under  central  official  control 
brought  much  better  results  than  in  agriculture — a  fact  which 
points  to  satisfactory  wages  and  working  conditions  as  an  essen- 
tial addition  to  propaganda  for  more  women  workers.  And, 
naturally  enough,  such  methods  as  the  use  of  photographs,  per- 
sonal visits  by  persons  familiar  with  local  needs,  and  the  trial 
of  a  few  expert  women  workers,  all  proved  effective  when  gen- 
eral printed  appeals  had  but  sli^t  effect. 


CHAPTER  VI 

Source  of  Additional  Women  WoAen 

The  question  naturally  arises,  where  did  the  increased  number 
of  women  workers  come  fro.n?  Who  are  the  thousands  of  .nun.- 
tion  workers,  the  girls  undertaking  men's  jote.  and  »n  die  army 
of  a  million  women  who  were  not  at  work  m  July.  IVl^. 

Transfers  from  Non-essential  Industries 
The  increase  during  f..e  first  months  of  war  in  the  industries 
equipping  the  troops  was  met  for  the  most  part  by  a  transference 
3  w^ers  from  slack  to  busy  lines.     "'So  great  has  been  the 
passing  from  industry  to  mdu^try."  said  the  factory  .nsp«:tors 
^t  at  the  beginning  of  the  New  Year  ,t  seemed  almost  as  .f 
women  and  girls  had  gone  throu^  a  proc.„.  of  General  Post. 
For  mstance.  makers  of  h.gh  cla^  jewelry  in  B.rmmgham  trans- 
ited to  Ught  me,*i  work  ..  the  army.    Silk  and  I'^en  -eave- 
^  into  woolen  «lls  and  dressmakers  in  the  west  M.dl«.ds 
were  taken  on  in  lig4«  leather  work.    In  oAer  cases  J^^k  'ndus- 
tr,es  took  up  goverwnent  work.     The  activity  of  the  Central 
Committee  on  Women's  Employment  in  securing  contracts  for 
u«fonns  for  idle  dressmaking  establishments  has  already  been 
mentioned.    The  Scottish  fish  workers  were  reheved  by  knmmg 
orders.     Certain   carpet   mills  took   up  the  weavmg  of   anny 
blaricets    corset   makers   were   set   to  makmg  knapsacks,   girl 
workeson  fishing  tackle  were  used  in  the  manufacture  of  hosiery 
machine  needles,  previously  imported  f  ron    --7^ -J  -J^^ 
.as  made  to  provide  the  manufacture  of  tape  and  ^a'd  f -r  ^^ 
forms  for  unemployed  lace  makers  in  the  Midlands.    .Arm    shirts 
.ere  made  bv  manv  of  the  Irish  collar  factones.    In  retail  trade 
also  there  was  often  a  transference  from  slack  to  busy  shops,  as 

T^eat  Britain  Home  Office,  RfPort  of  the  Chief  InsfeCor  of  Factories 
and  Workshops  for  igi4.  P-  33. 


WOMEN   AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


69 


from  dressmaking  and  millinery  to  the  grocery  trade.  Middle- 
aged  profesMooal  women  whose  ordinarj-  occupations  were  un- 
favorably affected  by  the  war  frequently  took  the  ]K>sitions  in 
banks,  insurance  offices,  and  other  business  offices  which  had  for 
the  first  time  been  opened  to  women.  Yet  in  the  two  trades  which 
suffered  most  severely  from  unemployment,  namely,  cotton  tex- 
tiles and  dressmaking,  there  was  a  much  "less  general  movement 
of  the  workers  to  find  a  livelihood  in  other  directions."  This  was 
considered  due  in  the  one  case  to  "relatively  high  wages  and 
specialized  factory  skill,"  in  the  other  to  "deep-rooted  sucial  tradi- 
tions .and  special  craft  skill." 

Very  early  in  the  war,  also,  married  women  who  had  worked 
before  marriage  returned  to  industry.  .\  large  proportion  of  the 
(Expanding  needs  of  the  woolen  trades  was  filled  in  that  way.  In 
"draper>" — that  is  to  say.  "dry  goods" — shops,  many  of  these 
"dug-out"  married  women  also  appeared.  Municipalities,  when 
substituting  women  for  Tr~n  on  tram-cars  and  in  other  ser\nces, 
frequently  gave  preference  to  the  wives  of  men  who  had  enlisted. 
Soldiers'  wives  likewise  entered  munitions  work  in  large  num- 
bers. While  probably  the  reason  for  their  reentering  work  was 
largely  economic — rising  food  prices  and  "separati<in  allowances" 
insufficient  to  maintain  a  skilled  worker's  standard  of  living,  par- 
ticularly if  the  family  was  large — yet  their  choice  •)f  occupations 
appears  to  have  been  at  least  partly  dictated  by  patriotic  motives. 

As  the  war  went  on,  the  transference  of  women  from  "nor- 
mal" women's  occupations,  such  as  domestic  service,  dressmak- 
ing, textiles,  the  clothing  trades,  and  laundry  work  to  the  more 
highly  paid  lines,  especially  munitions  work,  liecame  more  and 
more  noticeable.  The  actual  decline  in  numbers  in  these  occu- 
pations has  previously  been  descrilied.'  In  addition  to  the  de- 
creases in  these  trades,  a  considerable  change  in  personnel  was 
observed,  involving  "the  loss  of  skilled  women  and  the  conse- 
quent  deterioration   of  the  f.uality   of   labor."-     For  example, 


»  See  pp.  36.  39. 
•  British   Association   for  the 
nnd  lltf  It'ar,  p.  71. 


.\clvanccment  of   Science.   Labour,  Finane 


70 


■CONOM IC  XrFSCTS  OP  TBS  WAS 


skUled  women  left  taundry  work,  and  their  places  were  filled  by 
charwomen,  or  young  girU  fresh  from  school.  Not  infrequently 
the  skilled  women  went  to  abnost  unskilled  work,  as  from  textiles 

to  munitions. 

On  the  other  hand,  war  conditions  have  occasionally  kept 
women  at  home  who  were  previously  employed.  In  districts 
where  large  numbers  of  soldiers  were  billeted  women  were  kept 
busy  at  home  attending  to  their  needs.  Especially  in  coUiery  dis- 
tricts where  married  women  were  thrown  out  of  work  at  the 
beginning  of  the  war  the  rise  in  men's  wages  caused  them  to  be- 
come indifferent  to  obtaining  new  positions.  In  some  cases, 
noUUy  in  the  Dundee  jute  mills,  separation  allowances  placed 
the  wives  of  casual  workers  who  had  enlisted  in  a  sUte  of  com- 
parative prosperity,  and  they  ceased  to  go  out  to  woric.  But  on 
the  whole  the  war  doubtlessly  increased  the  emjrfoyment  of  mar- 
ried women. 

In  s|«te  of  impressions  to  the  contrary,  the  proportion  of  pre- 
viously unoccupied  upper  and  middle  class  women  entering  "war 
work"  was  by  no  means  large.    Some  young  girls  from  school 
who  would  not  normally  have  gone  to  work  and  some  older 
women  who  had  never  worked  before  entered  clerical  employ- 
ment.   A  limited  number  of  well-to-do  women  took  up  such  tem- 
porary farm  woric  as  fruit  picking  from  patriotic  motives.  Many 
of  the  women  working  behind  the  lines  in  France  and  as  military 
nurses  were  from  the  "upper  classes."    And  an  appreciable  num- 
ber of  munition  workers  were  drawn  from  the  ranks  of  educated 
women.    One  such  worker  estimated  that  in  the  lai^  establish- 
ment where  she  was  employed,  about  nine  out  of  100  women  be- 
longed to  that  class.'    The  "week-end  munition  relief  workers." 
or  "W.  M.  R.  W.,"  who  worked  Sundays  in  order  to  give  the 
regular  staff  a  rest  day,  were  rumored  to  include  among  their 
members  "dukes'   daughters  and  generals'   ladies,  artists  and 
authors,  students  and  teachers,  ministers'  and  lawyers'  wives."* 

~i  Monica  Cosens.  Llovd  George's  Hfmition  Girls.  1916,  p.  114. 

'  Henriette  R.  Walter.  "Munition  Worker?  in  Kngland."  Mumtwn  Makers, 
1917,  p.  138. 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


71 


tmt  this  class  of  workers  was,  after  aU,  small  and  was  not  in- 
creasing. 

Mainly,  however,  the  new  needs  of  industry  have  been  fillwl 
by  working  women  or  the  wives  of  working  men.  Former  fac- 
tory hands,  charwomen,  and  domestic  servants  are  found  on  the 
heavier  work,  and  shopgirls,  dressmakers,  and  milliners  on  the 
lighter  lines. 

A  fairly  large  i»-(^>ortion  of  the  increase  may,  moreover,  be 
accounted  for  without  the  recruiting  of  new  workers.  Numbers 
of  home  workers,  of  half-employed  charwomen  and  of  small 
shopkeepers  and  other  employers  have  voluntarily  liecome  regular 
employes.  Fewer  women  have  married  and  fewer  seem  to  have 
left  industry  on  marriage  since  the  war.  A  writer  in  The  Nnc 
Statesman  noted  of  certain  women  munition  workers  that  "a 
large  majority  of  them— even  girls  who  look  scarcely  more  than 
sixteen — wear  wedding  rings.'" 


Transfers  between  Districts 

In  connection  for  the  most  part  with  the  expanding  munitions 
industry  there  has  developed  a  phenomenon  rare  on  any  large 
scale  in  the  history  of  women  in  industry,  namely,  the  trans- 
ference of  women  workers  from  their  homes  to  other  parts  of  the 
country.  The  British  government  has  naturally  not  encouraged 
detailed  statements  of  the  building  of  new  munition  plants  and 
the  extension  of  old  wies,  but  occasional  glimpses  reveal  revolu- 
tionary changes.  In  a  speech  to  the  House  of  Commons  in  June, 
1917,  the  British  Minister  of  Munitions  said: 

But  the  demands  of  the  artillery  programme,  as  it  was 
formulated  in  the  latter  half  of  1915.  were  such  that  it  was 
necessarj'  to  plan  for  the  erection  of  large  additional  fac- 
tories. .  .  .  They  were  erected  at  such  a  pace  that  what 
were  untouched  green  fields  one  year  were  the  sites  a  year 
later  of  great  establishments  capable  of  dealing  with  the  raw 
materials  of  minerals  or  cotton,  and  of  working  them  into- 
finished  explosives  in  great  quantities  every  week. 


•  The  New  Statesman,  January  13,  1917,  p.  346. 


72 


KCOMOMIC  EFFECTJ  OP  THE  WAE 


Moreover,  firms  in  operation  before  the  war  »»ve  frequently 
doubled  and  quadrupled  their  cap«nty.  In  B-rT"  *.  "I ^  ' 
a  somewhat  isolated  town  in  the  northwest  of  En^d.  the  popu 
UtTgrew  from  75,000  in  1914  to  85.000  in  1916  on  account  of 
S.e  enlargement  of  a  munitions  plant.  To  meet  the  needs  of  such 
outers  ifwas  necessary  to  secure  workers  from  many  other 

'°lff^"  was  made  to  center  any  transference  of jvomen  woricers 
in  the  employment  exchanges.    The  Ministry  of  Munitions  hand- 
Z^  of   "Instructions  to   Controlled   ^^f  "*-;"'%/.«^;; 
mended  application  to  the  employmetit  exchanges  for  all  fem^e 
labor  inst^d  of  engaging  it  "at  the  factory  gate    m  order  tl«t 
the  supply  might  be  organized  to  the  best  advantage  and    an^ 
unnece^ry  disturbance"  of  the  labor  market  avoided.    But  the 
r^omm^Ition  was  not  universally  adopted.    An  undat^  cr- 
cular  of  the  Ministry  complained  that  m  cases  where  the  ex 
Sa^ges  were  not  uil  skilled  women,  such  as  pov«r  nach.nc 
oSors  and  stenographers,  for  whom  there  was  an  "unsat^fied 
Z^"^  gove^t  work,  had  been  hired  for  mvJc.lled 
Sons  wort  where  unskilled  women  were  available^  Women 
Td  been  brought  into  towns  where  lodgings  were  almo  t  .„,- 
p^lb^  to  obtain  while  suitable  local  women  were  unemployed. 
S  Lurrences  and  the  "stealing"  of  f^^^^^^^rZZ 
plover  from  another  caused  an  order  to  '>« '"^'^^.""f '^^^;^^: 
'fence  of  the  Realm  .\ct  on  February  2.  1917.  wh.ch  forbade  the 
owner  of  an  arms,  ammunition,  explosives.  e"«'"«^""g- "^j'"^ 
building  establishment  to  procure  workers  from  more  than  ten 
miles  .away  except  through  an  employment  exchange. 

The  emplovmrnt  exchange  figures  of  the  number  of  women 
obSing  emplovment  in  other  districts.  wl.Ich  therefore  prob- 
tTZL  an' increasing  pro^tion  of  the  movem^nt^are  for 
1914  32.988.  for  1915.  53.096.  and  for  19  6  160.003  In 
S  rch.  1917.  the  number  of  --n  worker,  be^g  rncnecl^  » 
distance  through  the  exchanKcs  was  lietween  4.000  ^^^^f^' 
tnl    In  Februar>..  1917.  5.118  women  from  some  200  differ- 

t  Labour  C,«:clle.  March,  1917,  p.  92. 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


7i 


ent  exchange  areas  were  brought  into  eight  large  munition  cen- 
ters alone.  In  this  one  month.  1,641  women  were  brought  from 
sixty-three  different  districts  to  a  single  munitions  factory  in  the 
south  of  Scotland,  and  to  another  in  the  West  Midlands  772 
women  "were  imported  from  centers  as  far  apart  as  Aberdeen 
and  Penzance."  Official  judgment  ascril>ed  the  increased  mobil- 
ity of  women  labor  to  the  rise  in  wages  and  the  appeal  of  patri- 
otism, which  together  ssupplied  an  incentive  previously  lacking. 

Besides  the  munition  workers,  the  transfer  is  noted  during 
1914  of  silk  and  cotton  operatives  to  woolen  mills  and  of  tailor- 
esses  from  the  east  coast  to  I.eeds  uniform  factories,  and  in  1915 
of  fishenvomen  and  others  from  the  east  coast  resorts  to  the 
Dundee  jute  mills  to  replace  the  married  women  who  left  to  live 
on  their  separation  allowances.  Some  women  substitutes  for 
men  in  clerical  and  commercial  work  and  in  the  staple  industries, 
and  agricultural  workers,  especially  for  temporary  work,  were 
transferred  in  1916  as  well  as  the  munitions  workers. 

Care  of  Transferred  Workers 

The  work  of  the  "local  committees  on  women's  war  em- 
ployment" in  recniiting  women  from  non-industrial  areas,  meet- 
ing strangers,  arranging  for  their  lodging,  and  promoting  "wel- 
fare" schemes  has  previously  been  outlined.  For  the  women 
transferred  under  their  auspices  the  employment  exchanges  were 
able  to  guarantee  that  such  arrangements  had  been  made.  .\11 
women  applicants  for  work  in  nationnl  factories  were  required 
to  pass  a  medical  examination  before  being  allowed  to  leave 
home.*  In  all  cases  the  working  conditions  and  living  expenses 
to  be  expected  were  fully  explained,  and  the  exchange  had  the 
power  to  advance  railway  fare. 

But  even  with  such  precautions  serious  problems  arose  in 
transferring  large  numbers  of  women  and  girls  long  distances 
from  home.  Additional  strain  was  involved  in  working  among 
strangers.  In  one  case  where  women  munition  workers  were 
thrown  out  of  work  by  a  strike  of  the  men,  their  plight  was  the 


>  Labour  Gatetie.  March,  1917.  p.  93. 


74 


BCONOMIC  BmCTt  Of  THE  WAK 


more  Mriotu  because  many  of  them  were  milea  from  home  and 
had  not  the  money  to  return.  For  young  girlt  the  ab^nce  from 
home  restraint!  and  supervision  was  often  harmful.  One  of  the 
later  reports  of  the  Health  of  Munition  Workers  Committee 
of  the  Ministry  of  Munitions  suggested  a  still  more  difficult 
situation  in  the  following:* 

The  arrival  of  mothers  in  a  town  accompanied  by  quite 
young  infants,  or  three  or  four  young  children,  having 
travelled  long  distances,  is  becoming  more  and  more  com- 
mon—tV.r  mother  is  attracted,  in  the  absence  of  the  father 
on  active  service,  by  the  prospect  of  high  wages  in  munition 
worics,  and  brings  her  baby  or  children  with  her. 

So  pressing  had  the  problems  become  that  the  committee,  while 
Tccognixing  the  valuable  work  done  by  the  local  volunteer  com- 
mittees, felt  that  the  time  had  arrived  when  the  sUte  should  ap- 
point officials  to  "supplement,  complete,  or  coordinate  their 
work."  In  accordance  with  this  recommendation  a  number  of 
"outside  welfare  officers"  were  appointed  in  1917  by  the  Min- 
istry of  Munitions,  who  aided  the  local  committees  and  were 
held  responsible  for  completeness  in  their  arrangements.' 

Can  more  women  be  obtained  if  the  industrial  needs  of  the 
nation  demand,  or  has  the  expansion  in  the  number  of  workers 
come  near  to  exhausting  the  supply?  The  question  is  one  to 
which  it  is  hard  to  give  an  accurate  answer.  It  has  been  pointed 
out  that  the  number  of  women  at  work  continues  to  increase 
rapidly.  Late  in  1916  the  Board  of  Trade  estimated  that  there 
were  still  1,500,000  women  with  irdustrial  or  commercial  ex- 
perience who  were  not  working.  Women  labor  leaders  replied 
that  1,000,000  of  these  women  were  over  thirty-five  and  that 
almost  all  were  married.  To  take  such  women  away  from  hoires 
and  children  "will  not  be  to  the  national  advantage."* 

"T&eat  Britain  Minister  of  Munitions,  Health  of  Munition  VVorkcrs  Com- 
mittee Mm«Ja"i««  No.  ,7.  "Health  and  Welfare  of  Mun.hon  Workers 
Outside  the  Factory,"  1917.  j    •      ...    ,^ 

>  John  and  Katherine  Barrett.  British  Industrial  Fxfenence  durmg  the  War. 
Sen.  Doc.  114,  6Sth  Cong.,  1st  Sess. 

•Standing  Joint  Committee  of  Industrial  Women's  Organizations.  The 
Position  of  Women  after  the  War,  p.  S. 


WOUZM  AND  CHILDREN  IN  CRXAT  BIUTAIN 


73 


In  November,  1917,  represenutives  of  the  Ministry  of  Muni- 
tion* likewiw  thou|^t  there  were  {rienty  of  women  available,  and 
called  attention  to  the  thouiands  of  women  registered  at  the  em* 
ployment  exchanges.  Over  29,000  adult  women  were  on  the 
"live  register"  on  July  13,  the  latest  date  for  which  official  figures 
were  accessible  in  America  in  November.  On  the  other  hand, 
as  far  back  as  January,  1916,  officials  of  the  exchanges  stated 
that  a  third  of  the  unfilled  applications  were  those  of  women  not 
previously  empk)yed,  and  another  third  those  of  women  in  situa- 
tions who  wished  to  change. 

An  interesting  discussion  of  the  subject  was  found  in  the  re- 
port of  the  chief  factory  inspector  for  1916.  Except  in  a  few 
localities,  it  is  there  stated,  "the  .wpply  of  women  labor  still 
appeared  to  be  practically  unlimited.'"  The  only  acute  scarcity 
was  in  the  "normal"  women's  trades,  which  women  had  left  for 
meti's  work  and  in  which  the  'low  pre-war  standards  of  wages 
and  welfare  persist.'"  Considering  that  in  191 1.  over  12.700.000 
"females  ten  years  of  age  and  over"  were  returned  as  "unoc- 
cupied," and  only  5,800,000  as  "gainfully  occupied."  it  would 
seem  that  even  with  an  increase  of  a  million  women  workers,  a 
considerable  number  of  wo"ien  might  still  be  available  to  answer 
the  call  of  the  nation. 


'  Gre«t  Britain  Home  Office,  Rfforl  of  the  Chief  lusfeclor  of  Factories 
and  Workshops  for  1916,  p.  6. 


CHAPTER  VII 

TniJning  for  War  Work 
It  wta  with  retnarkaWy   little  organiwd  training  that  the 
women  took  up  their  new  line»  of  work  and  fitted  into  the  men's 
places.    The  nio«t  extensive  devel.iimtnt  of  special  training  wa- 
to  be  found  in  the  munitions  mdwrtry,  tm^r  the  auspice*  of  the 
Ministry  of  Munitions.  An  orticial  circular  of  the  Ministry,  dated 
November.  1915.  outlined  a  scheme  t.r  iH-oducinp  semi-skilled 
workers  bv  strictlv  practical  courses  of  thirty  to  one  hundred 
hours'  duration,  intended  to  give  the  learner    "machine  sense" 
and  to  teach  him  to  use  some  one  machine  tool.    It  was  realized 
that  this  tvpc  of  cotirse  was  not  in  harmony  with  the  Inrst  e(ht- 
cational  principle?,  but  the  necessities  of  the  case  demandetl  that 
nothing  more  should  be  trie<l  than  to  lum  otit  competent  workers 
in  the  shortest  possible  time     The  comparatively  small  demand 
for  women  munition  workers  at  this  time  was  suggested  by  the 
fact  that  while  the  classes  were  to  be  open  both  to  men  and 
women,  it  was  recommended  that  the  Icxal  authorities  should  be 
sure  ut  employment  for  the  latter  before  training  them.     The 
pupils  were  required  to  agree  to  work  in  munition  factories  at 
the  end  of  their  course. 

By  February.  1916,  in  the  pamphlet  on  the  "Employment  of 
Women  on  Munitions  of  War'  it  was  stated  that  over  10.000 
persons  had  been  trained  in  the  courses,  niostlv  educated  men 
who  were  unfit  for  military  service.  The  .Ministry  was  now 
anxious  "to  apply  and  extend  the  methods  indicated  above"  to 
women,  who  were  entering  the  courses  in  increased  numbers.  In 
June.  191".  Dr.  Christopher  Addison,  then  Minister  of  Muni- 
tions, told  the  House  of  Commons  that  over  32.000  workers  ha<l 
been  trained  bv  more  than  sixty  classes  opene<l  in  existing  tech- 
nical colleges,  and  that  five  sincial  factories  were  utilized  solely 
for  in.lustri^l  training.'    Dr.  .^ddison  did  not,  however,  indicate 

~lxhri,tophei   .\ddison.  British  IVorkihops  and  the  War,  p.  36. 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


n 


the  proportion  of  women  thtu  trained.  According  to  reprcKnu- 
tives  of  the  Minist<7  of  Munitions,  women  were  always  trained 
"to  order,"  and  not  "to  stock." 

Next,  perhaps,  to  munitions  work  in  frequency  though  much 
kis  extensive  were  the  courses  offered  in  agriculture.  In  con- 
nection with  the  women's  county  cu;nmittees  it  was  arranged  that 
women  should  be  admitted  to  the  county  farm  institutes,  and 
short  emergency  courses,  some  of  only  one  month's  duration, 
were  started.  During  the  season  of  1916.  39(,)  women  completed 
such  courses.  In  almost  every  county  also  large  landowners  and 
farmers  gave  free  training  to  some  women.  In  1917,  24" 
"training  centers"  were  reported  and  140  (anus  had  registered 
for  the  work.'  Efforts  were  also  l)eing  made  to  instruct  the 
wives  of  farm  laborers  who  could  not  leave  home. 

Vocational  courses  for  other  lines  of  work  were  much  more 
scattcing.  The  London  County  Council  carried  on  short  emer- 
gency courses  along  the  lines  advised  by  the  "Shops"  and 
"Clerical  Employments"  committees  to  prepare  women  for  retail 
groceries  and  for  business.  It  also  carried  on  a  successful  course 
in  gardening  for  six  months,  but  had  to  drop  it  because  housing 
accommodations  were  not  available.  Classes  in  the  shoe  trade 
were  opened  at  Leeds,  Bristol,  and  London,  and  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  leather  cases  and  equipment  at  I.ondon  and  Walsall.  The 
Liverpool  authorities  began  to  teach  women  jx)wer  machine  oper- 
ating and  toymaking.  the  last  being  a  trade  expected  to  grow  in 
England  with  the  cessation  of  German  imports.  .\  course  which 
attracted  considerable  attention  liecause  it  provided  skilled  w  ork 
at  comparatively  high  pay  after  two  or  three  months'  training 
was  the  class  in  oxy-acetylene  welding  managed  by  "\\'omen's 
Service,"  a  private  organizati<in  of  women  for  war  work.  Women 
were  not  sent  out  as  T-ondon  bus  conductors  until  they  had  sev- 
eral weeks  of  careful  instmction  in  schools  conducted  by  the  com- 
panies, .^n  interesting  development  in  special  training  which 
accompanied  the  growth  of  welfare  work  in  munition  and  other 
plants  was  the  opening  of  several  course*  for  would-lw  "welfare 


»  Tht  Sur-.ey.  Sept.  !.">,  1917.  p.  527. 


78 


ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 


supervisors"  in  a  number  of  the  newer  universities.  A  fairly  long 
list  of  training  courses  was  given  for  Ix)ndon  alone  by  the  Na- 
tional Union  of  Women  Workers,  but  examination  of  the  list 
shows  that  only  a  few  were  special  war  courses,  and  that  most  of 
them  covered  professional  work  for  the  minority,  and  not  indus- 
try or  trade  for  the  many.' 

Some  employers  were  said  to  prefer  entirely  untrained  women 
to  those  who  had  gone  through  short  emergency  courses,  because 
the  latter  were  prone  to  overestimate  the  value  of  their  training. 
But  oo  the  whole  the  classes  were  believed  to  give  a  much  better 
start  to  the  woman  who  realized  that  they  left  her,  after  all,  stilt 
a  banner.  Yet  whatever  their  value,  it  is  evident  that  the  great 
majority  of  women  learned  their  new  tasks  without  any  such 
help,  entirely  in  the  workshop. 

"Tig^tional  Union  o{  Women  Workers,  Occasional  Paper.  May,  1916,  pp. 
66-68. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
Women  and  the  Trade  Unions 

III  England,  as  in  other  industrial  countries,  women  workers 
have  ijeen  notoriously  hard  to  organize,  and  have  formed  but  a 
small  minority  of  trade  union  membership.  In  1913  nearly 
4,000,000  men  and  cmly  356,000  women  were  said  to  be  mem- 
bers of  English  trade  unions.  Aside  from  the  fact  that  prior  to 
the  war  most  women  were  found  in  unskilled  and  low  paid  oc- 
cupations in  which  union  organization  had  made  but  little 
progress  among  men,  the  usual  explanation  of  the  difficulty  of 
organizing  them  wa^  that  most  of  them  were  young  and  ex- 
pected to  marry  within  a  few  years  and  to  withdraw  irom  in- 
dustrj'.  The  one  exception  to  this  condition  was  the  cotton  tex- 
tile trade,  in  which  a  large  proportion  of  the  women  belonged  to 
trade  unions.  Out  of  the  whole  number  of  organized  women, 
257,000  were  in  the  textile  trades.  As  already  indicated,  many 
of  the  unions  in  the  skilled  trades  would  not  admit  women  mem- 
bers, and  were  unfavorable  to  any  extension  of  their  work. 

Two  special  organizations  were  devoted  to  the  promotion  of 
trade  unionism  among  women.  The  policy  of  the  oldest,  the 
Women's  Trade  Union  League,  was  to  put  women  into  men's 
unions,  or  into  societies  formed  in  close  connection  with  them. 
But  in  many  trades  where  there  were  large  numljers  of  women, 
men's  unions  did  not  exist  or  forbade  the  admission  of  women. 
The  National  Federation  of  Women  Workers  gave  its  £':tention 
to  these  occupations.  Its  membership  was  stated  to  be  about 
20,000  in  1913. 

Since  the  war  the  number  of  women  trade  imionists  seems  to 
have  grown  at  a  comparatively  rapid  rate.  The  female  member- 
ship was  reported  to  be  356,092  on  December  31,  1914 — about 
the  same  as  in  1913— and  400,919  on  December  31,  1915,  an  in- 
crease of  12.6  per  cent.'    During  the  same  period  the  male  mem- 


"  Labour  Gaselle,  June,  1917,  p.  201. 


'■f:i 


ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAH 

bership  rose  ln.t  5.3  per  cent.  This  situation  is  doubtless  due. 
however,  rather  to  a  drawing  off  of  men  workers  into  mihtary 
service  than  to  a  proportionally  greater  interest  in  union  organiza- 
tion among  women. 

Complaints  were  made  that  it  was  even  harder  than  usua.  !  > 
interest  some  of  the  new  workers  in  trade  unionism  because  they 
were  so  consciously  working  only  for  the  duration  of  the  war. 
Women  have  been  found  who  believrd  in  the  value  of  organiza- 
tion sufficiently  to  keep  up  the  dues  of  the  men  whose  places  they 
were  taking.  '"U  who  refused  to  join  themselves.  But  some  olj- 
servers  predict  an  unprecedented  spread  of  union  organization 
among  women  if.  after  the  close  of  the  war.  wage-cuts  affect 
those  who.  for  the  first  time,  are  undertaking  responsible  and 
lairlv  well  paid  work. 

The  principal  agencv  concerned  with  unionizing  women  dur- 
ing  the  war  period  has  been  the  National  Federation  of  Women 
Workers,  which,  at  its  biennial  convention  in  May,  1916.  an- 
nounced  that  its  membership  was  then  40,000,  having  doubled 
since  1913.     The  federation  was  especially  active  among  muni- 
tir        jrkers.    Under  its  energetic  secretary.  Miss  Mary  Macar- 
thi.r  It  was  credited  with  securing  legislation  and  official  action 
in  behalf  of  the  women  war  workers,  in  addition  to  its  organiz- 
ing work.    Its  breezv  little  monthly  paper.  The  Woman  Worker 
which  shed  much  light  on  the  iK>int  of  view  of  the  woman  trade 
unionist  tovvard  events  of  the  day.  was  started  in  January.  1916. 
The  substitution  question,  it  has  been  shown,  emphasized  the 
unfriendlv  attitude  of  many  unions  in  the  skilled  crafts  toward 
the  women  worker.    In  a  number  of  cases,  even  where  they  were 
forced  to  permit  "dilution."  they  seem  to  have  retained  an  atti- 
tude of  hostilitv  or  suspicion.    Numerous  individual  instances  of 
this  kind  mav'be  found  in  the  pages  of  the  Dilution  Bulletnts 
In  some  cases  tools  have  been  purposely  set  wrong  or  have  not 
been  supplied  at  all.  and  unf        able  reports  of  the  women  s 
work  have  been  made  without        -lantial  basis.     In  spite  of  the 
munitions  acts  the  Amalgamated  Society  of  Engineers  refused  to 
admit  women  to  membership,  though  it  offered  to  cooperate  with 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREV  IN  GREAT  BRITATV 


81 


the  National  Federation  o'  Women  Workers.  The  value  of  its 
help  was  somewhat  pr.»olematical.  The  federation  praised  it 
highly,  perhaps  for  tactical  reasons,  saying  that  several  new 
blanches  were  "literally  made  by  A.  S.  E.  men,'"'  while  a  writer 
in  the  ll'oiiu'n's  Jiuiiistrial  Xews  stated  that  the  one  or  two  cases 
of  A.  S.  E.  action  in  behalf  of  the  women  "have  had  no  pressure 
behind  them,"  and  secured  only  "negligible"  results."  The  two 
tramway  unions  also  were  among  those  voting  down  the  admis- 
sion of  women. 

Other  imions — ai^>arently  on  the  whole  the  newer  and  more 
radical  bodies — did  let  in  the  women  workers.  The  waiters' 
union  even  ojiened  a  class  to  train  them  to  replace  the  interned 
foreigners.  The  steam  railway  organizations  admitted  them, 
though  not  exactly  on  the  same  terms  as  men.  The  women 
substitutes  naturally  appear  to  have  had  a  "smoother  path"  under 
these  circumstances  than  where  the  jwlicy  of  exclusion  was  main- 
tained. 

Persistence  in  the  policy  of  excluding  women  after  the  war 
seems  to  many  observers  likely  to  result  in  undermining  the 
strength  of  the  skilled  craft  unions.  Even  though  employers  may 
l)e  forced  to  turn  ofif  the  women  for  a  while,  they  will  not  fail 
sooner  or  later  to  turn  to  such  a  force  of  experienced  female 
labor.  And  the  women,  many  of  whom  will  probably  have  been 
suffering  from  unemployment,  unorganised,  and  without  machin- 
ery for  holding  up  the  wage  scale,  are  not  likely  to  resist  suc- 
cessfully the  undercutting  of  the  men's  rates.  It  is  even  sug- 
gested that  some  of  the  women,  indignant  at  their  treatment,  may 
be  willing  to  see  the  men  driven  out.  A  growing  bitterness  be- 
tween unskilled  and  skilled  men  is  already  reported  over  a  like 
issue.  From  this  point  of  view  it  is  urged  that  the  wiser  policy 
for  the  unions  is  to  admit  women  and  to  require  them  to  be  paid 
the  equivalent  of  the  men's  wage  scale. 


'  The  IVomaH  Worker,  Januar)-,  \9V\  p.  13 
'  IVomcn's  Industrial  Xi'ws,  .\pril,  19Io,  p. 


CHAPTER  IX 

Control  of  Women  Worker,  under  the  Munitions  Acts 

The  munitions  act  set  up  an  unprecedented  degree  of  control 
over  the  ^vorkers  through  three  different  methods-the  prohibi- 
tion of  strikes,  a  restriction  of  the  right  of  the  individual  to  leave 
work,  and  the  establishment  of  special  "Munitions  Tnbunals  to 
regulate  the  leaving  of  work  and  to  punish  breaches  of  workshop 

discipline. 

Prohibition  of  Strikes  and  Lockouts 

The  prohibition  of  strikes  and  lockouts  was  the  most  inclusive 
of  the  three.    It  applied  not  only  to  all  "munitions  work    as  de- 
fined by  the  act.»  but  also  to  all  work  done  "in  or  >"  connecti«i 
with"  munitions  work,  and  to  any  other  work  to  «;hich  the  Mt 
should  be  applied  by  proclamation  on  the  g^^^^^^^.^^J.^^P^J' 
of  work  would  be  "directly  or  indirectly  prejudicial    to    the 
manufacture,    transport,    or    supply    of    munitions    of    war^ 
Strikes  or  lockouts  were  forbidden  unless  a  dispute  had  been  re- 
ferred to  the  Board  of  Trade,  which  for  twenty-one  days  had 
taken  no  action  toward  settling  it.    Further  provisions  for  a  more 
prompt  settlement  of  disputes  were  included  in  the  second  amend- 
ing a^t,  in  August.  1917,    The  penalty  for  violations  by  either 
enWr  or  employe  was  a  fine  which  might  be  as  high  as  £. 
(about  $24)  per  man  per  day.    Disputes  might  be  referred  by 
the  Board  of  Trade  for  settlement  to  any  one  of  several  subor- 
dinate bodies.    Ordinarily  the  one  used  for  ">en's  work  was  the 
"Committee  on  Production  in  Engineering  and  Shipbuilding 
After  the  passage  of  the  first  amending  act*  in  January.  1916, 

'.Munhioi  of  War  Act.  5  and  6  G.o.  S.  Ch.  54.  Part  I.  2(1). 

»  See  p.  45. 

♦  5  and  6  Geo.  5.  Ch.  99. 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


8^ 


the  "Special  Arbitration  Tribunal"  authorized  by  it  to  advise 
regarding  conditicms  of  womena  work,  was  the  body  generally 
chosen  by  the  Minister  of  Munitions  to  settle  disputes  involving 
women. 

The  clause  prohibiting  strikes  was  undoubtedly  the  result  of 
the  strikes  of  "engineers"  on  the  Clyde  early  in  1915,  and  other 
disturbances  on  war  work  which  followed  after  the  "industrial 
truce"  had  once  been  broken.  The  prohibition  was  roundly  de- 
nounced by  the  labor  and  radical  groups  as  having  "given  rise  to 
more  strikes  than  it  has  preventetl."'  The  South  Wales  coal 
strike  in  the  summer  of  1915,  a  few  weeks  after  the  passage  of 
the  act,  which  was  settled,  not  by  penalties,  but  by  concessions  to 
the  men,  is  the  Ijest  known  example  of  the  failure  of  the  act.  In 
June.  1917.  according  to  the  statement  of  the  Minister  of  Miuii- 
tions  himself,  over  a  hundred  "disputes  accompanied  by  short  ces- 
sations of  work,"'  came  to  the  attention  of  the  Ministry  each 
month.  Strikes  are  comparatively  infrequent  among  women 
workers,  yet  even  there  the>-  occurred  in  defiance  of  the  law.  The 
Woman  Worker  recorded  a  case  at  a  shell  filling  factory,  where 
because  a  canteen  attendant  was,  as  they  thought,  unjustly  dis- 
missed, the  girls  refused  to  go  back  to  work  after  the  noon  hour, 
and  began  to  throw  about  the  china  and  food  in  the  canteen.' 
Yet,  while  the  strike  prohibition  was  not  a  complete  success,  it 
was  probably  increasingly  effective  in  reducing  the  number  and 
seriousness  of  disputes.  In  the  first  five  months  of  1917,  540,- 
700  days  were  lost  through  disputes.  The  number  of  days  lost 
during  the  same  period  in  1916  was  1,559,000  and  in  the  first 
five  months  of  1914  over  four  times  as  manv.' 


"Leaving  Certificates" 

Since  the  keen  deman.  'or  labor  had  arisen  in  the  industry, 
the  "labor  turnover"  of  t.<perienced  workers  in  munition  fac- 
tories had  reached  abnormal  proportions,  causing  loss  of  time 

'  Women's  Trade  Union  Reziew,  July,  1917.  p.  1. 

'Christopher  Addison,  British  Workshofs  and  llu-  War.  p.  39. 

'The  Woman  Worker,  February,  1917,  p.  II. 


!      I 


^  ECONOMIC  KFrECTS  OF  THE  WAR 

and  often  of  skill.    The  frequent  changes  and  the  resulting  inter- 
ruption to  production  had  become  the  subject  of  senous  com- 

plaints  from  employers.  ..,.,,.:„„  r-r- 

*^  To  diminish  this  "labor  turnover"  a  system  of    le^Mngcer 
tificates-  or  "clearance  cards"  was  put  into  effect.    No  pers«« 
leaving  munitions  work  could  be  given  work  by  ""o'J'^^TXe 
for  six  weeks  unless  he  or  she  had  a  "leavmg  certificate.      The 
certificate  was  required  to  be  granted  by  the  employer  on  d.s- 
Tharging  the  worker,  and  might  be  granted  by  a  Munitions  T- 
bunaT  if  "unreasonably  •  withheld.    This  was  the  only  condu  on 
h^ed  in  the  original  act  to  prevent  a  certificate  from  being 
Wul  V  withhefd.     The  giving  of  employment  contrary  to 
Zeprovisions.  or  the  falsifying  of  a  "leaving  certificate,    were 
serious  offenses  under  the  act.  punishable  by  .«/"«•".  fi"^.•^i 
£50  (about  $240).     "Leaving  certificates"  might  be  requ.«j^^    •" 
or  in  connection  with  munitions  work"  in  "^X '""'»  °^ '^'^^f  ^; 
mems  to  which  the  regulations  were  applied  by  order  of  the 
Sstry  of  Munitions.    In  July.  1915.  an  order  -as  issued  re- 
quiring them  in  all  engineering,  shipbuilding,  ammunition,  arn^ 
L  explosives  establishments,  and  esubUshments  Prod-ng  sub- 
stances required  for  such  production.     In  May.  im  all    con 
trolled  establishments"  not  previously  included,  and  certain  places 
prcviding  electric  light  or  power  for  munitions  work,  were  added 

'^tetaving  certificate  re.,.=.^  lent.  were  said  to  I.  the  only 
feature  of  the  munitions  ac  ^     ■  '  by  employers,  but  no 

It  was  more  unpopular  w'    •.  -rs     It  ^-^  ^^-'^^/'^' 

Silled  workers  were  tied  t     ..■  jol^  and  th-  ren^^-;^ 

powerless  to  move  to  better  ^^  .a  working  condition..    The 

Eing  quotation  from  The  IVcran  Worker^  illustrates  the 
laljor  point  of  view : 

The  first  Munitions  Act  came  q«ietly-on  'U>-toe.  Hke  a 

thief  in  the  night,  and  not  one  woman  worker  m  a  thousand 

knew  of  its  coming. 
>  January,  1916.  pp.  5-7. 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


85 


Their  shackles  were  riveted  while  they  slept.     .     .     . 

The  foreman's  reply  to  the  complaining  one  is  no  longer : 
"If  you  don't  like  it  you  can  leave  it."     She  can't. 

If  she  tries,  she  will  find  that  no  other  employer  will  be 
allowet'  to  engage  her,  and  unless  she  can  persuade  a  Muni- 
tions Court  to  grant  a  leaving  certificate,  six  weeks'  idleness 
must  be  her  portion.  And  we  know  what  that  means  to" 
many  a  woman  worker.  Long  l)efore  the  six  weeks  are  up, 
her  little  treasures,  if  she  lias  any,  are  gone  and  God  help 
her  then. 

.  .  .  One  great  danger  of  the  new  conditions  is  that 
sweating  and  bad  conditions  may  be  stereotyped. 

The  other  da_\'  a  munition  worker,  who  was  being  paid 
12s.  weekly,  had  a  chance  of  doing  the  same  work  for 
another  employer  at  1  pound  weekly,  but  the  Court  refused 
her  permission  to  make  the  change.  And  thus  we  have  a 
concrete  case  of  the  State  turning  the  lock  in  the  door  of 
the  sweaters'  den     .     .     . 

Some  people  hold  ver>'  strongly  that  these  leaving  certifi- 
cate clauses  of  the  Munitions  Act  are  altogether  unneces- 
sary. They  hamper  and  irritate  men  and  women  alike,  and 
so  far  from  accelerating  output,  may  actually  diminish  it. 
Under  the  Defence  of  the  Realm  Act,  it  is  already  illegal 
for  employers  to  incite  nnmition  workers  tf)  change  their 
employment,  and  that  should  hiue  l)een  sufficient. 

So  stringent  were  the  "leaving  certificate"  clauses  in  their 
original  form,  that  in  the  amendment  act  of  Januan,-,  1916,  it 
proved  necessary  to  add  several  conditions  making  them  more 
favorable  to  the  workers.  If  an  emplover  refusetl  a  certificate 
when  a  worker  was  dismissed,  or  failed  to  give  a  week's  notice  or 
a  week's  pay  in  lieu  of  notice,  except  on  temporar>-  work,  the  tri- 
bunal could  now  make  him  pay  as  nnich  as  £5  (about  $24)  for 
the  loss  of  time,  unless  it  appeared  that  the  worker  was  guilty  of 
misconduct  to  secure  dismissal.  A  number  of  other  conditions 
under  which  a  certificate  must  be  granted  were  laid  down  by  the 
amending  act.  They  included  failure  to  provide  employment  for 
three  or  more  days,  failure  to  pay  standard  wage  rates,  l)ehavior 
of  the  employer  or  his  agent  toward  the  worker  in  a  way  to  just- 
ify his  leaving,  end  of  apprenticeship,  and  existence  of  another 


^  ECONOMIC  EFrtCTI  Of  THE  WAR 

opening  whe«  the  worker  could  be  u«d  "with  greater  «ivwtage 
^e  national  imere.t."    Even  Thi  Womc,  iforkcr  admUtcd  of 
the  amen^.  -nt  act:  "CerUinly  in  nuuiy  way.  it  i.  an  .mprove- 
ment  over  tne  old  one.    The  workeri  have  new  nght.;  and  . 
they  are  .trong  enough  and  clever  enough  to  take  advantage  of 

them  much  can  be  done."  

Difficultiei  .till  aroM.  however.    Though  on  .t>me  government 
contracto.  .uch  a»  clothing,  the  .yrtem  was  not  m  force  it  wm 
often  believed  that  the  card,  were  required  on  e%ery  form  oi 
government  work.    They  were  indeed  necessary  .:.  •« J^^y  »^- 
Tories  that  employer.  he«Uted  to  take  workers  w.Utout  them 
which  made  it  hard  to  secure  work  in  a  mimitions  plant  for  tt.e 
first  time.    Often  the  workers  did  not  know  their  right,  under 
the  act  to  seaire  certificates  or  damages  from  the  tnbunalsunder 
certain  conditions.    It  wa.  finally  decided  that  dismissal  because 
of  trade  union  membership  wa,  illegal  "tending  »«  "f*"^*  °"^ 
out "    By  the  help  of  the  Federation  of  Women  Worker,  three 
,\iri.  dismi.«d  for  joining  the  federation  s^^Ji^dj^njI^n^Jt'O" 
tor  their  dismissal  from  the  local  Munition.  Tnbumil.  and  the 
firm  was  finally  fined  for  the  act  by  the  central  court^ 

Nevertheless,  in  spite  of  all  concessions,  wh.cn  officials  of  the 
Ministry  believed  had  removed  the  admitted  injustices  of  the  act 
in  its  original  f  om,.  the  certificate  system  continued  to  ^use  much 
irritation  among  the  workers.    The  official  commissions  to  mves- 
tieate  the  in^'-tstrial  unrest  prevailing  m  the  summer  of  IVl/ 
named  the  ope.     on  of  the  system  among  its  chie^      "^^J^was 
because  of  the  workers'  protests  that  the  secot         ;«"*"«"»/° 
S^munitions  act.  passed  August  21.  1917.  gave  Uie  Mmistr,^ 
of  Munitions  power  to  abolish  the  "leaving  certificate    sy  tern   f 
it  thought  it  could  be  done  "consistently  with  the  national  inter- 
est"   Trad,  union  leaders  informed  the  government  that  they 
could  not  keep  their  members  in  line  unless  the  system  was  spven 
UP     The  Ministry  issued  an  order  abolishing  the  certificate  after 
October  15   1917"'    Workers  were  merely  required  to  remain  on 
some  kind 'of  war  work,  except  by  permission  of  the  Ministry. 

1  Labour  Gazette.  September,  1917.  p.  314. 


WOMEN   AND  CHIU>RBN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


S7 


and  at  lca.Ht  a  week'*  notice  or  a  week's  wages  was  necessary  |je> 
fore  leaving. 

Munitions  Tribunals 

In  addition  'o  appeals  for  leaving  certificates,  the  Munitions  Tri- 
bunals dealt  with  breaches  uf  workshop  discipline,  and  with  cases 
of  disoliedience  to  the  instructions  of  the  Ministr>-  of  Munitions. 
These  courts  were  set  up  throughout  the  country.  Each  con- 
sisted of  a  chairman  chosen  by  the  Ministry  of  Munitions,  and 
four  or  more  "assessors."  taken  from  a  panel,  half  of  whom  rep- 
resented employers  and  half  employes.  The  "asstssors"  served 
in  rotation,  a  session  at  a  time.  There  were  two  classes  of  tri- 
bunals, "general,"  <lealing  with  all  offenses,  and  "local,"  with 
those  for  which  the  penalty  was  less  than  £5  (about  $24 ».  The 
latter  handled  the  great  majority  of  the  cases,  settling  3,732  be- 
tween July  and  December,  1916,  whereas  the  general  tribunals 
took  up  only  182.  Under  the  original  munitions  act  the  gene- 
ral tribunals  had  the  power  to  imprison  for  non-payment  of  fines, 
but  this  aroused  such  resentment  among  the  workers  that  it  was 
taken  away  by  the  first  amendment  avt. 

The  Munitions  Trilmnals,  like  leaving  certificates,  were  a 
source  of  much  annoyance  to  working  women.  Complaints  were 
made  that  the  representatives  of  the  Ministry  of  Mun  Hons  had 
no  understanding  of  the  labor  point  of  view,  so  that  there  was 
always  a  majority  against  the  employes.  Fines,  unlike  those 
imposed  by  employers,  did  not  have  to  be  "rea-sonaWe"  in  the 
legal  sense  of  the  word,  and  their  size  was  not  known  to  the 
workers  l)ef(irehand.  .\n  employe  summoned  Ijcfore  ;*  :il)uiiai 
lost  at  least  a  half-day's  and  sometimes  a  full  day's  \\o'  ,,  or  sev- 
eral hours  of  sleep  if  a  night  worker.  Previous  to  January,  l^lfi 
women  workers  might  be  obliged  tO  appear  before  a  tribunal  com- 
posed entirely  of  men.  But  by  the  amending  act,  as  "the  direct 
outcome  of  a  scanc  .lous  case"  in  which  three  girls  who  had  1-ft 
their  jobs  because  of  "gross  insult"  were  obliged  to  explain  the 
Hrcumstances  with  no  woman  present,*  it  was  required  that  at 

'  The  Woman  Worker,  January,  1916,  p.  7. 


^  gcoNomc  ErrBCTi  or  tmi  wa» 

to.t  one  of  the  .«mor.  reprccnting  the  emp»o)«  .houW  b.  . 

wnerallv  unfavorable  to  the  worker*.  From  *«.'*«;""';^^_ 
Srir  vork  to  November  27.  1916.  814  case,  involving  3.672  p«- 
*^':  :ere  heard  against  employes.  Convict^- SSter'S 
of  these  were  secured,  and  fines  amountmg  to  £2^235  were  .m^ 
nMfd  -\eainst  employers  there  were  but  eighty-six  «ses  m 
J^vfng  niJ^Hour^er-ns.  fifty-six  per«>ns  convicted.  «,d  a 
^1  "5  Sf  £290^^  Out  of  3.0U  request,  for  leav.ng  cert.fi. 
cates.  only  782  were  granted. 


.3» 


CHAPTER  X 

W«gM 

Protwbly  no  factor  in  the  working  conditions  of  wjmen  it 
more  vital  to  their  welfare  than  the  wages  they  receive.  A  study 
of  the  changes  in  wages  brought  about  by  the  war  is  therefore 
of  special  importance.  Ordinarily  len  seld.mi  do  precisely 
the  same  work  as  men,  and  the;  i  .,  irily  receive  wages  not 
more  than  half  as  high.  Did  the  .rence  continue  when  the 
women  took  up  mms  jobe?  The  fear  that  the  women  w.nild 
lower  the  rates  established  by  the  men's  trade  uniotis  was,  as  we 
have  seen,  one  of  the  main  reasons  for  the  opposition  of  male 
trade  unionists  to  "dilution."  In  what  meastu%  was  the  women's 
demand  for  "equal  pay  for  equal  work"  attained?  The  replace- 
ment of  enlisted  men  by  women  and  the  extensive  use  of  women 
in  the  manufacture  of  muniti'-it.f  invested  women's  .vork  as  never 
before  with  the  character  ot  a  national  service,  and  this  led  to  ,( 
demand  for  more  adequate  wage  standards.  In  considering  the 
subject  of  wages  it  should  always  be  kept  in  mind  that,  roughly 
speakinp,  wages  and  prices  are  about  half  as  high  in  England  as 
in  the  United  States,  though  the  diflference  in  prices  was  prob- 
ably somcwh      •ss.ned  during  the  third  year  of  the  war. 

Go  'cmtnen  ,.  Wage  Requlation  in  the  Munitiotu  Industry 
h  'ixitig  wages  on  munition  work  government  control  ot 
wa^?  \x  ..s  extended  to  a  new  group  of  industries,  and  some  novel 
precete-.ts  were  established.  A  good  many  complaints  were 
made  of  inadequate  wages  paid  woman  workers  on  ammunition 
and  ordnance  in  the  first  months  of  the  war.  before  the  "dilu- 
tion" movement  had  started.  In  the  Clyde  district,  15s.  weekly 
($3.60)  was  said  to  be  a  common  rate.  A  "women's  war 
interests  comm-ttee"  ac  Manchester  found  the  women  getting 
13-lSs.  weekly  ($2.88-$3.60)  when  the  "standard  rate"  of  the 


<I0  ECONOMIC  WFICtS  OF  THE  W»« 

district  .«  2*.  ($4.80).    The  com,nitt«  initi.«d  .  '»™I»i8» 

torn  immriiatdy  --t  ,n  "><1"Y  ,">^'l^S«^"%h. 
an  ioierpretation  of  this  soit.e»h.t  amtafiKWs  slMment. 

received  the  reply; 

Dear  Miss  Pankhurst :  The  -or^^^^^lZT^  w^Sld 
guarantee  that  women  ""dertatang  the  ^^^i^  tefore  the 
iSt  the  saine  piece-rates  »^  "^"^/^^j:^^^'^!  that  if  the 

(Signed)     D.  Lloyd  George. 

<;he  then  asked  if  they  were  to  receive  the  same  war  bonuses 
and  :n;rLlt  men.  Ld  what  was  to  be  ^id  women  ttmc 
^vorkers;  but  her  second  letter  was  not  answered^ 

The  complaints  and  agitation  contmued.     ^^J^"  J*:*;"^" 

o  'nidations  for  wa^  rates  for  wonten^  ^  ';«^. 
drawn  up  in  consnlution  with  the  Central  I^' j"^'',,';'^ 
mittee.    The  circolar,  which  is  al».ys  referral  to  as    L2.    hxea 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


91 


a  prescribed  (not  a  minimum)  time  rate  of  £1  ($4.80)  weekly, 
and  the  same  piece-rates  for  women  as  for  men.  A  special  para- 
graph emphasized  that  women  doinp  skilled  men's  work  should 
be  paid  the  men's  rates.  The  Ministry  had  no  power  to  enforce 
the  recommendations,  however,  and  they  were  by  no  means  imi- 
versally  observed.  Opinions  as  to  their  efficacy  vary  from  the 
official  view  that  "Xaticmal  factories  were  instructed  to  adopt 
th^se  provisions,  and  many,  though  not  all,  private  firms  put  them 
into  force,'"  to  the  radical  criticism  that  the  "recommendations 
might  have  been  of  value  had  there  been  any  means  of  enforcing 
them.  As  it  was,  the  circular  was  merely  an  expression  of  opin- 
ion which  [tended  to  lull  the  public]  into  a  state  of  security  un- 
justified by  facts.'"  The  Woman  Worker  even  went  so  far  as  to 
say  that  "In  January  last  [1916],  a  very  important  firm  stated 
that  they  were  the  only  firm  in  the  United  Kingdom  that  were 
paying  wages  in  accordance  with  Mr.  Lloyd  George's  circular."' 
In  the  fall  of  1915  the  trade  unionists  entered  on  an  active 
campaign  to  give  the  Ministry  power  to  fix  wages  for  women 
and  unskilled  and  semi-skilled  men,  the  men's  tmions  fearing  the 
permanent  lowering  of  their  standard  rates,  and  the  women's 
organizations  being  perhaps  more  concerned  in  behalf  of  the 
underpaid  women  themselves.  In  January.  1916,  the  men's  unions 
demanded,  as  the  price  of  their  continued  help  in  promoting 
"dilution,"  that  the  provisions  of  "L2"  should  be  made  compul- 
sory. By  the  amending  act  of  January  27,  1916,  the  Minister  of 
Munitions  was  empowered  to  fix  wage  rates  for  all  females  and 
for  semi-skilled  men  on  skilled  work  in  munition  plants  where 
clearance  cards  were  required.*     The  National   Federation  of 


•  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  Monthly  Review,  August,  1917, 
p.  123. 

'  Women's  Industrial  Xews,  April,  1916,  p.  IS. 

»  The  H'oman  Worker,  April,  1916,  p.  9. 

*The  amendment  act  of  August,  1917,  gave  the  Minister  of  Munitions 
further  power  over  wages  for  all  workers.  He  might  give  any  directions 
regarding  pay  for  all  time  workers  on  munitions  considered  necessary  to 
maintain  or  increase  output  and  might  apply  any  special  wage  awards  which 
covered  the  majority  of  the  employers  in' any  trade  to  the  whole  of  the 
trade.  No  information  about  any  use  of  these  powers  to  alter  women's 
wages  was  at  hand  at  the  end  of  November,  1917. 


92  ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 

Women  Workers  was  active  in  securing  the  change,  and  Its 
magazine  describes  the  struggle  in  its  usual  picturesque  style. 
IVage  Fixing  for  "Women  on  Men's  Work" 
In  a  month  the  provisions  of  Circular  U  were  made  compul- 
sory*    The  directions  were  "on  the  basis  of  settmg  up  of  the 
niSunes  being  otherwise  provided  for.    They  are  stnctly  con- 
STto  the  L  period."     Women  time  w-*""  ^^^^^^J 
over  on  men's  work  were  to  be  paid  a  pound  ($4.80)  for  a  week 
of  the  usual  hours  worked  by  men  in  engineering.    Rates  tor 
;««  work  and  for  work  ordinarily  done  by  "fully  skilled    n«n 
were  to  be  the  same  as  those  customarily  paid  men  but  jromen 
w^  not  to  be  put  on  any  form  of  piece  work  unti  "sufficiently 
;^ified."    Thrprinciple  of  "equal  p.y  for  equal  w«J    wa. 
further  laid  down  specifically  in  the  foUowmg  clause:    The  prin 
dple  upon  which  the  directions  proceed  is  that  on  systems  of 
paymenVby  results-equal  payment  shall  be  made  to  women  as  to 
Se^  for  an  equal  amount  of  work  done."  Further  safeguards 
of  the  rates  included  giving  women  the  same  overtime,  night 
shift,  Sunday,  and  holiday  allowances  as  the  men.  and  providing 
that  piece  rates  should  not  be  cut.    Women  were  o  be  pa  d  a 
the  rate  of  15s.  a  week  ($3.60)  for  time  lost   by  "air  raids    or 
other  causes  beyond  the  workers'  control     The  order  was  appl.«l 
only  to  controlled  establishments  in  engineering  and  allied  indus 
trii  as  it  was  designed  primarily  to  meet  conditions  m  those 
trades.' 

Wage  Fixing  for  "Women  Not  on  Men's  Work" 
The  regulation  of  wages  f o,  women  doing  men's  work  covered 
only  part  of  the  munition  wokers.  however.     As  The  Woman 

^The  Woman  Worker.  January,  W16,  p.  7.  p-bruary  24,  1916. 

.Great  Britain.  S,a,u,ory  RuUs  °".'',0:''/';^;^/„;S;f^„  appUed  is  never 

•  The  list  of  establishments  to  whjch  the  ^^^^^^  ?[t%»PP..    mforma- 

published,  as  it  is  considered    =°Pt™'7  *°  *5*  article  in  the  United  States 

Son     s  to  their  scope  comes  mainly  from  an  anrae  Munition 

Su.eau  of.  I-bor  Statjst.cs  M»«^^^  fllT^ir  wSuh  many  lart,  were  .up- 
Factories  m  Great  Britam,    August,  ''"ij^;;;        „{  M-mitions. 
plied  by  an  admmistrative  officer  of  tne  aimisir) 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


93 


Worker  remarked,  "What  about  the  women  who  ar^  doing  im- 
portant work  not  recognized  as  men's  work?    There  are  many 
more  of  these;  they  are,  generally  speaking,  much  worse  off; 
they  are  less  able  to  protect  themselves;  and.  therefore,  this  claim 
on  the  Minister  to  fulfil  his  pledged  word  is  even  stronger  than 
for  the  others.'"    In  March,  1916.  under  powers  given  the  Min- 
istry of  Munitions  by  the  munitions  amendment  act,  a  "Special 
Arbitration  Tribunal"  was  established  to  settle  disputes  r^ard- 
ing  women's  wages  referred  to  it  under  the  anti-strike  clauses  of 
the  munitions  acts,  and  to  advise  the  Minister  on  wage  awards 
for  women  munition  makers.    The  tribunal  consisted  of  a  secre- 
tary and  half-a-dozen  members,  two  of  whom  were  wcrnien.    In 
Miss  Susan  Lawrence  it  had  a  woman  long  active  in  behalf  of 
the  women  voricers,  and  in  Mr.  Ernest  Aves  an  expert  on  mini- 
mum wage  regulation.    The  tribunal  is  said  to  have  been  "per- 
haps more  important  and  successful  than  was  expected."*    The 
National  Federation  of  Women  Workers  at  once  brought  before 
it  several  cases  dealing  with  the  wages  of  munition  workers  in 
individual  factories  on  "work  not  rocc^ized  as  men's  work." 
In  general  the  awards  made  in  these  cases  gave  time  workers 
about  4j4d.  (9  cents)  an  he- ,  and  piece  workers  a  guaranteed 
minimum  of  about  4d.  (8  cents),  with  the  provision  that  the 
piece  rates  should  yield  the  ordinary  worker  at  least  a  third  more. 
The  Minister  of  Munitions  then  asked  the  special  tribunal  for 
recommendations  as  to  a  general  wage  award  for  females  on 
"work  not  recc^ized  as  men's  work."     Because  precedent  and 
data  were  lacking  it  was  said  to  be  extremely  difficult  to  fix  these 
rates.     But  finally  the  tribunal  made  a  recommendation  along  the 
lines  of  its  special  av.ards,  which  was  issued  as  an  order  on  July 
6,  1916.'    Four  pence  (8  cents)  an  hour  was  guaranteed  piece 
workers  of  eighteen  or  over  and  adult  time  workers  were  given 
45^d.  (9  cents).     \  half  penny  an  hour  additional  was  given  for 
work  in  the  danger  zone,  and  special  rates  might  be  fixed  for 

>  The  Woman  Worker,  April,  1916,  p.  9. 

»  John  and  Katherine  Barrett,  British  Industrial  Experience  during  the  War 
Sen.  Doc.  114,  6Sth  Cong.,  Ist  Sess. 
•  Great  Britain.  Statutory  Rules  and  Orders,  No.  447,  July  6,  1916. 


54  ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 

^rd  to  the  payment  of  women  mumt.on  workers  as  follows . 

;Srii  of  womo.  in  ord«-  to  get  d-eap"  k*"'- 
Th.  wo»«.  charged  .ha.  .h.  fi»»8  <>'"""'»'!' "*?* 

S  r.  .«.  by  no  <a«l.  of  .He -rU.J^»«.  '^^  J,'): 

:-ri«ra;r».-^v„jnd»„^ 

certificates  were  r«l~.red  were  '^•«^'^}i"^  womeos 
p„hher    cable    and  miscellaneous  meul  Itades.    .'"e  vv 
rubber,  cauie.  ciiiu  Vational  Federation  of  Women 

re^TSiS^ST-a^^rSsr^ 
if3:a-rt;^:»ssn--a:e=:s 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  CHEAT  BR7TAIN 


95 


granted  by  the  Ministry,  piece  rates  must  be  such  as  to  yield  a 
worker  of  "ordinary  ability"  a  third  more  than  her  time  rate.' 

RetisioH  of  Award  for  "Women  on  Men's  Work" 

By  this  time  also,  according  to  the  official  view  "it  had  become 
increasingly  apparent  .  .  .  that  the  provisions  of  Circular  L2 
.  .  .  were  too  rigid."  \o  time  rates  between  the  £1  a  week  and 
the  skilled  men's  rate  were  allowed,  and  women  doing  especially 
laborious  or  responsible  work  could  not  receive  special  pay. 

A  violent  controversy  was  likewise  going  on  as  to  the  pay- 
ment of  women  doing  part  of  the  work  of  skilled  men.  The 
unions  claimed  that  the  understanding  was  that  women  should 
receive  the  skilled  men's  rate  no  matter  how  small  a  port  of  the 
work  they  did;  the  employers  said  that  such  an  arrangement 
was  entirely  unreasonable.  The  Central  Munitions  Labour  Sup- 
ply Committee,  the  author  of  the  original  "12,"  was  called  on  for 
advice.  Recommendations  acceptable  both  to  it  and  to  the  Special 
Arbitration  Tribimal  were  finally  worked  out  and  issued  as  an 
order  January  1,  1917.'  Even  the  trade  imionists  acknowledged 
that  an  improvement  had  been  made,  and  that  the  standard  time 
rate  was  less  likely  to  be  used  as  a  maximimi.  The  £1  time  rate 
was  payable  for  a  working  week  of  forty-eight  hours.  Any 
overtime  up  to  fifty-four  hours  was  payable  at  6d.  (12  cents)  an 
hour,  and  beyond  that  at  men's  rates.  Special  rates,  not  laid 
down  in  the  order,  might  be  fixed  for  women  time  workers  on 
"work  customarily  done  by  semi-skilled  men,"  on  specially  la- 
borious or  responsible  work,  or  where  any  "special  circumstances" 
existed.  Under  this  clause  a  number  of  appeals  were  carried  to 
the  Special  Arbitration  Tribunal,  and  special  awards  made.  The 
clause  giving  women  on  skilled  work  the  same  rates  as  men  was 
reenacted,  but  it  was  stated  that  "a  further  order  on  this  sub- 
ject will  shortly  be  issued."    This  was  done  on  Janiiary  24.' 

The  compromise  adopted  set  oF     special  class  of  women  who 


'  Great  Britain,  Statutory  Rules  ana 
'Ibid.,  No.  888.  January  1,  1917. 
» Ibid.,  No.  49,  January  24,  1917. 


s,  No.  618,  September  13.  1916. 


96  ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 

did  only  part  of  a  skilled  man's  work.    In  this  class  were  to  be 
placed  all  wome-^  who  did  not  do  the  "customary  settmg  up    of 
the  machines,  o.  who  required  supervision  beyond  that  usual 
for  the  men.     5uch  women  were  to  serve  a  three  monUis    proba- 
tionary period."  receiving  the  specified  time  rate  for  four  weeks, 
and  then  rising  by  equal  weekly  increments  to  the  skilled  mens 
.ate  at  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  week.    But,  by  special  permis- 
sion  of  the  Minister  of  Munitions,  a  maximum  o^ ^^  V"'^\ 
of  the  skilled  men's  rate  might  be  deducted  to  meet  the  additioiuU 
cost  of  extra  setting  up  and  extra  supervision.    The  time  rate, 
which  rema;.ied  £1  for  a  forty-eight  hour  week  was  to  be  the  min- 
imum in  all  cases,  however.    A  woman  doing  all  the  work  of  a 
skilled  man  was  still  to  be  paid  his  rate.    Other  Causes  relating 
to  overtime,  cutting  of  piece  rates,  allowances  for  lost  time,  and 
so  on.  were  the  same  as  in  previous  orders  for   women  on  men  s 
work  "    The  order  was  applied  to  some  3.585  "controlled  estab- 
lishments" in  arms,  ammunition,  ordnance,  various  other  forms 
of  "engineering."  and  miscellaneo'is  metal  trade?. 

Extension  of  Award  Covering  "Work  Not  Recognized  as  Men's 

Work" 
Meanwhile,  in  October.  1916.  "munitions"  establishments  not 
included  in  the  outstanding  wage  order  for  -^-J^^^j^^f  ^^^^ 
"work  not  recognized  as  men's  woric"  were  notified  that  they 
JZa  shortly^  covered  unless  they  could  show  reasons  to  the 
To^rary     Many  protests  from  employers  resulted,  but  eariy  m 
Tnua;' the  forme'  order  was  reissued  with  slight  modifica-s 
a^d  mkde  applicable  to  a  wider  range  of  estabhshment^.      It 
Tow  covered  about  3.875  "controlled  establishments  '  indudmg 
Xr  forms  of   engineering,  miscellaneous  metal  trades,  and 
:r^icals.  asbestos,  rubber,  and  mi.,  a.  weU  ^^^^^^l^^^ 
in  the  narrow  sense  of  the  term,     rhe  chief  modifications  were 
r^onar,-  r^nod   (one  month  for  adult  women)   dunng 
which  a  half  penny  an  hour  (1  cent)  less  might  be  paid,  and 
-T^eat  Britain.  Statutory  Rules  a„d  Orders,  No.  9,  January  6.  1917. 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


97 


permiMion  to  apply  for  a  special  rate  for  girls  in  warehouses  as 
distinct  from  factories.  A  companion  order  fixed  rates  a  farth- 
ing an  hour  lower  for  a  few  factories  in  rural  districts.* 


Genera'  Increases  in  the  Awards 

In  March,  1917,  the  National  Federation  of  Women  Workers 
began  agitation  for  an  increase  of  2d.  (4  cents)  in  hourly  rates 
and  5s.  ($1.20)  in  weddy  time  rates.  The  rising  cost  of  living 
and  the  general  increase  of  5s.  weekly  granted  men  in  engineer- 
ing and  shipbuilding  were  among  the  principal  reascms  cited  for 
the  change.  The  Ministr>'  stated  that  increases  were  already 
under  consideration,  and  on  .\pril  16  announced  that  they  would 
go  into  effect  as  of  .^pril  8.  Women  time  workers  on  "men's 
work"  received  4s.  a  week  more  or  a  total  of  24s.  ($5.76).*  For 
woric  "not  recognized  as  men's  work"  the  gain  for  adults  was 
Id.  (2  cents)  an  hour  for  time  work,  ^d.  (lyi  cenU)  for 
piece  work.'  It  was  stated  that  on  .\pril  19,  1917,  the  only  trades 
left  outside  this  order  which  the  Minister  had  power  to  cover 
were  the  bolt,  nut  and  screw,  which  was  under  consideration; 
tin  box  and  paper  box,  which  were  regulated  by  the  trade  boards; 
oil  and  "serl  crushers,  in  which  women  were  mostly  loing  men's 
work;  glass,  emery  and  aluminum  worics,  which  were  unimpor- 
tant; soap,  in  which  were  few,  if  any,  women,  mtmitions  work; 
and  pottery,  hollow-ware,  brick  and  fire  clay. 

On  August  16,  still  another  general  advance  was  made  of  2s. 
6d.  (60c.)  for  women  eighteen  and  ovsr  for  a  week  of  the  cus- 
tomary woriring  hours.*  In  the  auttunn  of  1917,  it  was  reported 
that  the  arrangement  for  rev-sion  of  the  wages  of  men  in  the 
engineering  trades  was  to  be  extended  to  women.  The  men 
have  the  right  on  application  to  Vive  their  wages  altered  three 
times  a  year  according     ■  changes  in  the  cost  of  living.' 


'  Great  Britain,  Statutory    Met  and  Orders,  No.  10,  January  6,  1917. 

» Ibid.,  No.  489,  April  16.  1917. 

» Ibid.,  No.  492.  April  16,  1917. 

*]bid..  No.  893,  August  16,  1917. 

'  Boston  Chrittian  Science  Monitor,  September  20,  1917. 


98  ECONOMIC  ErrECTS  OP  THE  WAR 

An  award  by  the  Special  Arbitration  Tribunal  during  the 
summer  of  1917  was  of  special  imporunce  in  that  it  reaffirm^ 
the  equal  pay  principle.  The  tribunal  found  that  after  two  weeks 
women  crane  drivers  for  a  Scottish  firm  could  undertake  the 
whole  of  the  work  formeriy  done  by  men  and  peiform  it  with 
equal  efficiency.  They  were  therefore  given  the  men's  rates  and 
allowances. 

Wage  Awards  for  ll'onten  Woodworkers 
Besides  "men's"  and  "women's"  woric.  a  third  set  of  govern- 
mental wage  awards  covered  women  in  the  woodworic  industry 
where  large  numbers  were  employed,  especially  on  woodwork 
for  aeroplanes.    The  trade  unions  had  agitated  the  question 
vigorously  on  the  basis  of  maintaining  their  standard  rates.  But 
the  administration  felt  that  "the  aircraft  industry  has  extended 
enormously  since  the  war  began   .    .    .   to  legislate  for  women  s 
wages  on  the  customs  existing  prior  to  the  war  might  unduly 
hamper  the  development  of  the  trade."    The  wages  fixed  in 
September  1916,  on  the  basis  of  recommendations  by  the  Special 
Arbitration  Tribunal  were  5d.  (10c.)  an  hour  for  experienced 
adult  time  workers,  and  a  guarantee  of  ^yid.  (9c.)   for  piece 
workers.*     These  rates  were  about  K^d-  (Ic)  »"  •'O"''  '^'8*'" 
than  those  for  women  not  on  men's  work,  thus  approximating 
the  "men's  work"  awards.     Extra  rates  were  payable  for  over- 
time, and  the  various  precautionary  clauses  of  the  cariier  awards 
vrm  repeated,  except  that  no  recognition  of  the  equal  pay  prin- 
ciple appeared.    The  order  covered  some  ninety  establishments. 
Eariy  in  1917  the  Special  Arbitration  Tribunal  was  asked  to  ad- 
vise on  rates  for  woodwork  in  general.    The  tribunal  found  it 
difficult  to  preserve  t'..e  scheme  of  the  men's  rates  in  the  trade, 
and  finally  drew  up  a  conciie  interim  order  with  minimum  rates 
similar  to  those  for  ordinary  processes  on  woodwork  for  aero- 
planes.'    Meantime  tl.e  April  general  increase  was  decided  on 


1  Great  BriUin,  Statutory  Rules  a»d  Orders.  No.  621.  September  12,  1916. 
« Ibid..  No.  313,  March  30,  1917. 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


99 


SO  that  the  award  was  modified  on  that  basis,  giving  an  hourly 
rate  of  at  least  6d.  (12c.)  to  an  adult  woman  with  eight  weeks' 
experience.  Unlike  previous  awards,  this  was  neither  a  stand- 
ard nor  a  fixed  rate  but  a  true  minimum.  The  order  covered 
about  300  establishments.  The  rates  for  woodworkers  on  air- 
craft likewise  shared  in  the  general  increases  of  April  and  -Au- 
gust on  the  same  basis  as  in  other  munitions  work.' 

Criticism  of  Governmental  Wage  Fixing  in  Munitions  Work 
The  governmentol  policies  in  the  wage  fixing  outlined  above 
were  the  subject  of  some  sharp  criticisms.  That  the  govern- 
ment did  not  cover  all  munitions  work  and  not  even  all  con- 
trolled establishments  was  one  grievance.  Under  the  wider 
application  of  the  "leaving  certificate  clauses"  it  was  said  that 
some  firms  could  continue  to  pay  sweated  wages  while  tying  the 
workers  tr  their  jobs.  However,  by  April,  1917,  90  per  cent 
or  about  380,000  out  of  the  400,000  women  in  controlled  estab- 
lishments were  covered.  In  May  the  national  shell  factories  in 
Ireland  agreed  voluntarily  to  adopt  the  wape  scale  of  the  awards. 
Though  the  letter  of  the  law  would  indicate  otherwise,  the  Min- 
istry does  not  believe  it  has  power  to  fix  wages  outside  controlled 
establishments. 

Most  of  the  rates,  it  will  hxvf  been  noticed,  were  not  "mini- 
mum." but  "standard"  wages.  That  is.  they  were  to  be  paid 
unless  special  circumstances  existed  and  special  awards  were 
made.  Trade  unionists  said  that  only  minimums  should  have 
been  fixed,  and  that  the  time  rates,  especially,  were  taken  as  a 
maximum.  In  some  cases  it  was  alleged  that  women  were  kept 
on  time  work,  and  not  allowed  to  earn  piece  rates.  But  the 
Ministry  believed  that  "experience  justifies  the  adoption'  of  a 
standard  rate,  which  checked  constant  agitation  for  changes. 
On  work  of  a  temporary  character,  as  much  munitions  work  is. 
it  considered  it  advantageous  both  to  employers  and  employes  to 
know  the  rate  definitely. 

1  Great  Britain,  Statutory  Rules  and  Orders.  No.  491.  April  16.  1917. 


100 


BCONOMic  ErricTt  or  the  war 


It  wu  atoo  charged  tJ»t  the  ordm  were  f rtqucntly  not  obeyed 
and  that  piece  rate,  were  illegally  cut.    Without  fir.t  hand  m- 
vettigation  it  waa  naturally  impoaiWe  to  wtimate  how  far  theie 
charge*  were  true.  No  doubt  in»unce»  of  the  wrt  have  occurred, 
but  certainly  the  Miniitry  has  made  effortt  to  get  it»  ordert 
obeyed.    In  April.  1917,  it  ws»  obuining  information  co«k«™- 
ing  preKnt  wages  and  wage*  the  year  before  from  a'.l  controlled 
«tabHihmentt,  and  preparing  am  ♦her  inquiry  "dcgned  to  jee 
that  evaaioni  ...  are  reduced  to  a  minimum.  '  In  June,  1917, 
the  Minuter  of  Munition*  *Uted  that  the  average  weekly  wage 
of  women  in  munition  woric.  wa.  25..   ($6.00)-«rffic.ently 
high,  if  accurate,  to  denote  compliance  with  the  ordert.    An  m- 
fluential  group  of  women  trade  unioniits  admitted,  m  the  wmter 
of  1916-1917,  that  wages  in  the  engineering  industry  were  "con- 
siderably higher  than  the  ordinary  women's  rate,"  and  that  m 
the  fuse  and  powder  trade  they  had  be.a  "revolutionized.      The 
newspapers,  of  course,  were  full  of  the  high  wages  earned  by 
women  munition  makers-£3.  £4.  and  £5  a  week.    Apparentlr  a 
few  very  capable  piece  workers  did  sometimes  succeed  in  earn- 
ing as  much  as  this,  but  these  cases  were  undoubtedly  exceptional. 
\nothcr  indication  of  at  least  a  frequent  observance  of  the  or- 
ders was  the  report,  by  a  committee  of  the  British  Association 
for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  that  where  two  seU  of  women 
were  wcricing  in  the  same  shop,  the  one  on  wori<  subject  to  wage 
regulation  and  the  other  on  work  not  so  controlled,  "even 
although  a  similar  amount  of  skill  was  involved,  two  sets  of 
wage  rates  were  in  operation.     A  double  standard  of  wages  as 
between  men  and  women  has  long  been  a  well  recc^nized  fact 
of  industry ;  but  a  double  standard,  as  between  one  set  of  women 
and  anc^ther.  in  contact  with  each  other,  and  on  work  involving 
similar  powers,  is  a  new  phenomenon."' 

"TC^ited  State,  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics.  'IWomen',  Wage,  in  Munition 
Factories  in  Great  Britoin."  MonlUy  Revxnv,  August,  1917,  p.  120. 

«  Standing  Joint  Committee  of  Industrial  Women's  Organiiat.ons,  Tht  Po- 
silioH  of  Women  after  the  War.  p.  7.  ,   ,         ,..  j 

»  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  Labow,  Finance,  and 
the  War,  p.  91. 


WOMKN  AND  CMILORIN  IN  OUAT  BRITAIN 


101 


Still,  in  catimtting  theie  or  wiy  other  wage  increase*,  the 
greatly  augmented  coat  of  living  mtut  not  be  overlooketl.  The 
rtw  waa  estimated  at  40  per  cent  in  Fdmiary,  1'»16,  when  the 
first  compulsory  award  was  made,  70  per  cent  in  Aptil,  1917,  at 
the  time  of  the  first  general  increase,  and  85  per  cent  in  August, 
1917.  Rents  were  held  to  their  former  levels  by  a  law  uhieh 
forbade  raising  them  un  >»  structural  improvements  were  made, 
but  fuel,  shoes,  and  clothing  were  all  higher,  the  tax  burden  was 
greater,  and  food  had  more  than  doubled  in  price.  The  rate  set 
for  time  worker*  on  "men's  work"  in  munitions  in  February. 

1916,  £1,  was  equivalent  to  14s.  3d.  before  the  war,  and  later 
changes,  barely  kept  real  wages  from  falling.    The  24s.  of  April, 

1917,  corresponded  to  I4s.  2d. ;  and  26*  'W.,  the  August  award 

for  substitutes  for  men  on  time  work unitions  amounted  to 

scarcely  more  than  14a.  at  the  pre-war  scale  of  prices. 

Yet  all  in  all  it  would  seem  that  the  Ministry  of  Munitions 
was  justified  in  iu  claim  that,  "When  consideration  is  given  to 
the  diverse  nature  of  the  trades,  the  absence  of  any  data  on  which 
the  department  could  work  when  it  first  took  up  the  question  of 
regulating  women s  wages,  the  absolute  novelty  of  wage  regula- 
tion by  a  government  department,  the  extreme  urgency  of  the 
many  difficulties  which  arose,  the  reluctant  attitude  of  employers 
and  the  interdependence  of  commercial  work  and  munitions  work, 
the  department  feels  justified  in  claiming  a  ver>-  considerable 
adjustment  in  the  matter  of  women's  wages."' 

IVage  Fixing  by  the  Trade  Boards 

The  trade  boards,  authorized  in  1909  to  fix  minimum  wai?e 
rates  for  the  sweated  trades,  afford  an  excellent  example  oi  i.ie 
maintenance  of  legal  standards  in  war  time.  In  no  case  where 
they  had  taken  steps  toward  fixing  minimum  rates  did  they  allow 
the  war  to  be  used  as  a  pretext  for  interrupting  their  work.  The 
boards  which  had  been  established  prior  to  the  war  for  confec- 
tionery and  shirt  making  in  Ireland  and  for  tin  boxes  and  hol- 


» United  States  Bureau  of  Labor  Sutistici,  "Women's  Wag,!»  in  Munition 
Factories  in  Great  Britain,"  Monthly  Review,  August.  1917,  pp.  119-120. 


102  ECOKomc  EfrtcTt  or  tii«  wa« 

low  ware  in  Great  Britain  continued  their  work,  and  mwk  awardi 
which  went  into  effect  during  1915.  Partially  effective  order, 
for  confectionery  and  »hirt  making  in  Great  Brium  became  ob- 
ligaton  during  the  tame  year.  Moreover  the  scope  of  two 
Jioardi  wa»  extended,  of  uiloring  to  cover  certain  branchee  of 
retail  woric.  and  of  lace  finithing  to  include  "hairnet*  and  veil- 
ing* "  A  new  board  wm  even  let  up  propowng  rate*  for  linen 
and  cotton  embroidery  in  Ireland,  which  lines  had  been  put  under 
the  juriKlictioo  of  the  trade  board*  act  brfore  the  outbreak  of 
war.  But  *ince  the  war  the  act  it*elf  ha*  not  been  extended  to 
any  new  industries. 

The  more  direct  effect  of  the  war.  howe%er.  was  to  eau*e  all 
of  the  existing  board*  except  those  for  chain  making  and  linen 
and  cotton  embroidery  to  make  considerable  advances  in  their 
minimum  rates  in  an  effort  to  meet  the  rising  cost  of  living.  For 
instance,  the  British  tailoring  board  raised  the  rate  for  expe- 
rienced wt  .nei.  from  3>4d.  (6/^  cent*)  to  4d.  (8  cents)  an  hour 
in  Januar>-.  1^15.  a»"'  oroposed  a  further  increase  to  4'/id.  (9 
cents  t  in  julv.  1917.     A  special  minimum  rate  of  6d.  (12  cents) 
for  experienced  women  cutters,  a  class  of  work  in  which  women 
had  replaced  men  since  the  war.  was  fixed  in  April.  1916.  Simi- 
lariy  confectioner>-  and  tin  boxes  had  been  raised  from  14s.  Id., 
weekly  ($3.38).  to  16s.  3d.  ($3.90).  and  a  minimum  rate  of  19s. 
6d.  ( $♦  68 »  was  proposed.    But  it  should  be  remembered  that 
19s.  6d.  was  in  Am  -"st.  1917.  roughly  worth  but  12s.  B(\.  before 
the  war.  and  4J^a.       s  equivalent  only  to  lyid.     Even  the  most 
considerable  of  these  changes  failed  to  keep  pace  with  the  rise 
in  the  cost  of  living. 

Wage  Chamjes  under  Trade  Union  Agreements 

A  third  method  by  which  the  wages  of  many  women  were 
regulated  was  through  agreements  with  the  trade  unions.  Such 
agreements  really  formed  a  phase  of  the  "o.lution"  question. 
Women  must  be  prevented  from  becoming  unfair  competitors 
and  from  undercutting  the  standard  rates.  Consequently,  as  has 
been  described,  the  agreements  usually  i)rescribed  that  women 


WOMEN  AND  CHIUHIKN  IN  nRBAT  BRITAIN 


103 


•ulMiitutr*  thotiid  be  paid  the  men's  rate.  This  was  the  »tand- 
ard  u«cd  in  admitting  women  to  men'i  job*  in  nich  important 
industries  as  cutton,  woolen  and  worsted,  china  and  earthen- 
ware, and  boots  and  shoes.  Women  were  for  the  first  time  ad- 
mitted to  work  nn  the  more  important  itnitting  machines  on  con- 
dition that  they  should  receive  the  men's  piece  rates.  In  such 
instances  the  real  wages  of  the  women  were  undoubtedly  mate- 
rially impnjved. 

Another  important  wage  agreement  made  by  the  railway 
unions  in  .\ugust,  I'M  5,  secured  for  the  women  in  grades  where 
they  had  not  l)een  employed  liefore  the  war  the  minimum  pay 
given  men  of  the  same  grade.  The  agreement  did  not  cover 
women  taken  on  as  clerks,  however.  In  October.  1015.  the  men's 
war  boTiUs  was  increased  to  5».  a  week  ($1.2(>)  and  a  numticr 
of  women  applied  for  it.  The  conjjMnies  claimed  that  the  .Au- 
gust agreement  tacitly  excluded  the  women  from  participation 
in  the  bonus,  and  the  Committet  on  Production,  to  whom  a  test 
case  was  referred,  agreed.  But  when  the  men's  bonus  was  in- 
creased to  10s.  ($2.40)  in  September.  1916.  it  was  "generally 
felt  that  it  would  only  Iw  f.iir  to  grant  the  women'  something." 
.Accordingly,  in  November,  1916,  those  over  eighteen  were  given 
a  bonus  of  3s.  weekly  (72  cents)  and  those  under  eighteen.  Is.  6d. 
(36  cents). 

In  a  fc»v  cases,  the  trade  unions  were  satisfied,  because  of  the 
reorganization  of  the  work,  with  something  less  than  the  men's 
rate  for  wc  (  ?n  substitutes.  In  the  agreement  for  the  bleacling 
and  ''yeisig  trades,  a  minimum  of  four-fifths  of  the  men's  rate 
was  fixed  for  time  workers  though  where  women  turned  out  the 
same  quantity  they  were  to  lie  paid  the  same  piece  wages  as  men. 
The  Shop  Assistants'  Union  was  content  with  four-fifths  of  the 
men's  rates  for  the  women,  since  a  few  men  had  nearly  always  to 
be  retained  for  heavy  lifting.  .As  a  matter  of  fact,  in  many 
cases  the  organization  was  not  strong  enough  to  secure  even  as 
much  as  this. 


•  John  and   Katherine   Barrett.  Briliih  Indnstrial  Experience  during   the 
War,  Sen.  Doc.  114,  63th  Cong.,  1st  Sess. 


104 


ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 

Wages  in  Other  Trades 


Other  government  departments  were  not  on  the  whote  aj 
generous  L  the  Ministry  of  Munitions,  though  the  Adm^^ 
advanced  its  rates  in  April.  1917.  in  response  to  a  trade  un^n 
ap^'uhe  new  level  corresponding  rougWy  to  that  m  mumt>^» 
wSc     The  minimum  time  rate  was  24s.  ($5.76)  mstead  of  20s. 
mm      The   new   rate  for  a  "fully   skilled  laborer,     ^.6s. 
Si's-)  L  the  same  for  men  and  women.    VanaUons  were 
nermitted  under  special  circumstances  at  the  discretion  of  local 
E       Previoufto  this  time,  in  1915.  the  Admiralty^.ke  th 
Wa    Department,  had  given  women  workers  a  war  bonus  o 
onfy  2s.  Tweek  (48  cents)  when  they  had  given  ma^e  rnecham  s 
:;? laborers  4s.  (%  cents).    Wage  increases  m  the  Postoffice 
Department  were  gi  .n  in  the  form  of  war  bonuses,  whKh  were 
lar«r  for  men  than  for  women.    The  war  bonuses  g^nted  all 
Said  employes  in  1915  were  2s.  or  3s.  (48  cents  or  72  cents) 
for  men  and  only  half  that  amount  for  women. 

pTrLps  the  strongest  complaints  of  women's  -gesm  gov- 
ernmental service  were  made  about  the  women  ^erks  taken  on 
by  the  Civil  Service.  They  received  only  20  to  26s.  ($4.80  to 
^24  .or  ordinary,  clerical  work,  and  30s.  ($7  20)  for  super- 
vision  of  clerical  work  which  involved  considerable  .espons.b.hty. 
W^en  were  found  who  were  paid  .^O^-  C^^^)  J.^^^^^ 
work  for  which  men  had  been  rece.vmg  3(M0s.  (fy^/^>„ 
The  Women's  Industrial  Council  even  found  ,t  advisable  to  call 
a  conference  on  the  matter,  and  to  form  a  committee  to  take  up 
the  question  with  those  responsible.  The  results  of  .ts  work 
were  not  available  in  October.  1917. 

The  wages  paid  women  substitutes  for  men  m  trades  m  which 
neither  legal  regulation  n  agreements  existed  are  difficult  to 
discover.  Agriculture,  bread,  rubber,  confectionery,  and  saw- 
milling  are  important  examples  of  trades  of  this  sort.  In  such 
cases  the  Joint  Committee  of  Industrial  Women's  Organizations 
believed  that  "rather  more  is  gained  than  the  current  wage  for 
women     There  is  no  reason  whatever  to  suppose  that  the  rates 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


105 


approximate  to  the  rates  o{  the  men  displaced.'"  The  factory 
inspectors  in  1916  stated  that  in  a  few  cases  there  were  com- 
plaints of  very  low  wages,  and  women  retracing  men  in  bottle 
works  were  said  to  be  earning  only  lis.  a  week  ($2.64)."*  On 
the  other  hand,  an  investigation  of  clerical  workers'  war  wages 
showed  that  many  bee-keepers  replacing  men  were  receiving  the 
same  pay.  The  wages  of  stenographers  had  increased  perhaps 
10s.  ($2.40)  a  week  during  the  war."  The  failure  of  the  low 
wages  offered  in  agriculture  to  attract  a  sufficient  number  of 
workers  has  previously  been  commented  on. 

The  smallest  increases  in  wages  appear  to  have  ocairred  in  the 
trades  in  which  large  numbers  of  women  were  employed  prior  to 
the  war.  In  some  cases,  to  be  sure,  as  in  power  machine  oper- 
ating, steadier  work  and  overtime  made  earnings  considerably 
higher.  But  actual  changes  in  wage  rates  were  small,  and  were 
generally  in  the  form  of  a  "war  bonus"  of  2s.  (48  cents)  a  week 
or  less,  which  obviously  was  not  sufficient  to  cover  the  rise  in 
prices.  Wages  for  learners  were  said  to  have  increased  more  than 
those  for  experienced  workers.  The  necessity  of  a  decided  rise 
in  wages  to  keep  workers  from  transferring  to  men's  trades 
made  itself  felt  but  very  slowly.  The  only  lines  in  which  wage 
increases  of  this  nature  had  been  noted  up  to  the  end  of  1916 
were  high  class  dressmaking  and  millinery  in  London. 


The  Equal  Pay  Question 

The  question  as  to  how  far  women  substitutes  received  pay 
equal  to  that  of  the  men  they  replaced  is  not  as  simple  as  it  may 
appear.  It  is  necessary  to  ascertain  whether  the  work  has  been 
reorganized,  or  if  not,  whether  a  woman  substitute  is  doing  the 
same  amount  and  variety  of  work  that  the  man  did.  The  goal 
desired  by  the  advocates  of  "equal  pay  for  equal  work"  would 

'  Standing  Joint  Committee  of  Industrial  Women's  Organizations,  The 
Position  of  Women  after  the  War,  p.  8. 

•Great  Britain  Home  Office,  Report  of  the  Chief  Inspector  of  Factories 
and  Workshops  for  igj6,  p.  6. 
'  Women's  Industrial  News,  October,  1916,  p.  64. 


106  ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 

perhaps  be  more  accurately  expressed  by  the  term  "economic 
Quality  between  men  and  women."  This  goal  would  be  reached 
Tot  necessarily  by  the  same  rates  of  pay  for  men  and  women  m 
every  instance,  but  by  rates  for  women  wh.ch  would  prevent 
their  displacing  men  because  they  were  cheaper. 

Opinions  as  to  the  relative  efficiency  of  men  and  wo„en  on 
woric  within  the  limits  of  a  woman's  strength  vary,  but  see...  to 
grow  increasingly  favorable  as  the  war  goes  on  and  women 
%in  experience  in  their  new  positions.  The  average  woman 
Sn  not.  of  course,  do  as  heavy  work  as  the  average  man.  The 
judgment  of  the  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 

SciSce.  in  August.  1915.  was  that  -V'^"^'^1    hH^ 
were  less  productive  than  men.     T'  .  Association  held  that  they 
showed  less  judgment  and  initiative,  had  less  strength  and  more 
sickness,  and  beca-      they  expected  to  leave  work  on  marnage 
Z  we;e  less  an      .ous  for  training.    The  last  fact,  however 
made  them  more  willing  to  do  routine,  monotonous  work.    These 
limitations  applied  especially  to  adult  women.     Young  g.rls  were 
generally  considered  more  helpful  than  boys  of  the  same  ages. 
In  April.  1916.  in  its  second  report,  the  Bnt.sh  Association 
was  not  so  certain  of  the  lesser  capability  of  women  workers. 
It  quoted  one  railway  official  to  the  eflfect  that  women  car  cleaners 
could  not  get  through  as  much  work  as  men.  but  other  railway 
officials  believed  that  "what  women  lacked  in  quantity  of  work 
they  made  up  in  quality."    They  could  do  a  surprising  amoun 
also  "if  they  had  sufficient  wages  to  feed  and  clothe  themselves 
orooerly  "'    Women  shop  assistants  were  found  as  satisfactory 
as  men  on  all  work  within  their  strength.     But  it  was  beheved 
that  the  managerial  positions  in  stores  would  continue  to  be  re- 
served for  men,  who  were  more  willing  to  train  for  them  and 
more  likelv  to  be  permanent.     The  factory  inspectors  said  m 
their  1916' report  that  where  women  were  found  unsatisfactor>' 
it  was  generally  the  case  that  wages  were  too  low  to  attract  com- 
petent workers. 

"TiTitish  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  Labour.  Finance, 
and  the  War.  p.  201. 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


107 


A  large  steel  manufacturer,  Lord  Airedale  of  Gledhow,  gave 
interesting  testimony  as  to  the  efficiency  of  women.     He  said : 

There  is  one  hing  that  the  war  has  taught  us  here  in  Great 
Britain.  That  is  the  capacity  of  women  for  industrial  work. 
I  am  satisfied,  from  my  experience,  that  if  we  started  to  train 
women  when  they  are  quite  young,  at  tht  age  when  we  make 
boys  apprentices,  they  could  do  an  immense  amount  of  work 
in  engineering  trades,  apart  from  machine  minding,  and  the 
simpler  duties  they  now  perform. 

The  same  thing  applies  to  clerical  work.  Women  are  do- 
ing the  clerical  work  in  the  London  City  and  Midland  Bank, 
of  which  I  am  a  director,  with  the  greatest  possible  success. 
Some  of  these  young  women,  I  am  informed,  have  become 
mr"igers.  Here  again  training  is  all  that  is  necessarj-  to 
equip  for  very  important  work.* 

Some  of  the  strongest  tributes  to  women's  industrial  efficiency 
came  from  the  Ministry  of  Munitions.  Lloyd  George  stated 
that  "The  country  has  been  saved,  and  victory  assured  by  the 
work  of  women  in  the  munition  factories."  From  time  to  time 
the  Dilution  Bulletins  contained  examples  of  an  actual  increase 
in  output  when  women  replaced  men.  For  example,  at  an  east 
coast  aeroplane  factory-,  twelve  women  were  said  to  be  making 
twice  the  number  of  pulleys  formerly  made  by  si>:teen  men.  The 
output  of  a  horseshoe  manufactory  increased  7J4  per  cent  after 
ninety  women  replaced  the  same  number  of  men.  Frequently 
when  •v^'^ten  failed  in  their  work  the  cause  was  found  to  be  out- 
side their  control.  In  one  case  spoilt  work  was  due  to  the 
setting  of  tools  wrong  by  men  who  were  opposed  to  "dilution." 
Lack  of  proper  lifting  devices  was  not  an  uncommon  handicap. 

The  question  is  of  course  greatly  complicated,  especially  in 
industry,  by  the  fact  that  women  are  probably  not  in  the  majority 
of  cases  doing  precisely  the  same  work  as  the  men  who  preceded 
them.  .\t  least  four  different  forms  of  substitution  can  be  dis- 
tinguished, in  all  but  one  of  which  the  woman's  work  is  not 


'  "Two  Important  Lessons  from  England's  Experience."  S\stem,  June,  1917, 
p.  567. 


108  ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 

identical  with  the  man's.  These  have  been  caUed  (1)  complete 
or  direct  substitution.  (2)  group  substitution.  (3)  mdirect  sub- 
stitution and  (4)  substitution  by  rearrangement. 

"Complete"   or   "direct"    replacement   occurs   only   when   a 
woman  tekes  up  the  whole  of  the  same  work  that  a  man  has  been 
doing     The  frequency  of  this  form  of  replacement  has  probably 
been  overestimated  because  it  necessarily  occurred  when  women 
took  men's  places  in  such  non-industrial  positions  as  postmen, 
drivers,  and  tramcar  conductors,  with  whom  the  public  comes  m 
daily  contact.     Until  perhaps  the  third  year  of  war.  however, 
such  complete  replacement  was  for  the  most  part  found  m  the 
lighter  forms  of  comparatively  unskilled  work,  for  mstance, 
sweeping  in  bakeries,  filling  sacks  in  chemical  plants,  and  wme 
light,  unskilled  work  in  munitiwis  and  other  metal  trades.  Even 
in  clerical  work     omen  were  substituted  for  men  largely  m  the 
more  routine,  .ess  skilled  branches.     But  in  1916-1917  an  m- 
creasing  number  of  women  proved  able  to  do  the  whole  of  a 
skilled  man's  work,  even,  in  some  cases,  to  "setting  up"  .ind  re- 
pairing their  machines.    WOTien  were  found  who  seemed  to  be 
"natural  mechanics"— a  quality  formerly  thought  to  be  entirely 
lacking  in  the  female  sex. 

"Group"  substitution  is  said  to  take  pUce  when  a  group  of 
women  do  the  work  of  a  smaller  number  of  men.     It  is  the 
method  of  substitution  often  used  in  provision  stores  and  other 
forms  of  retail  trade.     In  some  cases  it  has  proved  to  be  only 
a  temporary  arrangement,  followed  in  a  few  months  by  "com- 
plete" or  "direct"  substitution,  as  the  women  gaineo  in  expe- 
rience and  efficiency  and  became  able  to  do  as  much  work  as  the 
men.    The  so-called  "indirect"  form  of  replacement  has  been  com- 
mon in  the  metal  trades,  especially  when  additional  women  were 
first  being  added  to  the  force.     An  unskilled  man  or  a  boy  was 
promoted  to  skilled  work,  whose  place,  in  turn,  was  taken  by  a 
woman.     This  form  of  substitution,  it  is  said,  is  particulariy 
easy  to  overlook. 

The  equal  pay  situation  becomes  most  complicated  under  the 
form  of  substitution  most  frequent  in  the  skilled  trades,  namely. 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


109 


substitution  by  rearrangement.  In  this  case  the  trade  processes 
themselves  are  changed  on  the  introduction  of  women  workers 
Excellent  illustrations  of  this  form  of  substitution  may  be  drawn 
from  the  munition  uranch  of  the  engineering  trade,  which  has 
been  revolutionized  by  such  methods  since  the  beginning  of  the 
war.  The  purpose  of  the  reorganization  is  to  simplify  skilled 
processes  so  as  to  bring  them  within  the  capacity  of  less  expert 
workers,  all  the  changes  tending  toward  greater  specialization 
and  greater  repetition. 

A  skilled  man's  work  is  sometimes  analyzed  into  its  various 
parts  and  a  woman  put  on  each  separate  part.  Or  simpler  parts 
of  a  piece  of  highly  skilled  work  may  be  set  off  for  women  to 
do,  while  a  man  spends  his  time  exclusively  on  skilled  operations. 
Thus  in  many  munition  factories,  where  formerly  each  machine 
was  "set  up,"  operated  and  repaired  by  a  skilled  man,  now  each 
is  operated  by  a  woman,  while  half-a-dozen  are  supervised  and 
repaired  by  a  single  skilled  man.  In  especially  exacting  work  it 
has  sometimes  been  possible  to  carry  "substitution  by  rearrange- 
ment" no  farther  than  to  substitute  fo.  •''  J  men  on  two 
machines  one  skilled  man  and  two  womt...  ..  '■ther  very  com- 
mon method  of  "substitution  by  rearrangement  consists  of  the 
introduction  of  automatic  or  semi-automatic  machinery,  in  place 
of  hand  work  or  machines  requiring  considerable  attention  and 
initiative  on  the  part  of  the  operator.  Thus  a  machine  for  cloth 
cutting  is  advertised,  which,  according  to  the  testimonial  of  an 
employer,  "does  the  work  of  four  hand  cutters  and  is  operated 
by  a  girl  with  the  greatest  ease.  Until  its  introduction  it  was 
impossible  to  employ'  women  at  the  actual  work  of  cutting,  but 
where  this  machine  is  in  use  it  is  now  done.  It  has  helped  us  to 
carry  on  six  government  contracts  and  has  reduced  cutting  costs 
by  more  than  SO  per  cent."'  Through  the  use  of  such  devices, 
women  'n  large  numbers  are  becoming  cutters  even  of  heavy 
garments. 

T^rom  one  point  of  view  it  would  not  seem  essential  that  women 
.lould  receive  men's  rates  if  "substitution  by  rearrangement"  has 

>  Labour  Gazette,  April,  1917,  p.  xxiv. 


110 


ECONOMIC  WFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 


taken  place.  From  another  viewpoint,  however,  if  the  lower 
rates  decrease  the  total  labor  cost  of  the  job.  as  is  almost  always 
the  case,  the  danger  remains  that  lower  rates  for  women  wUl 
pull  down  the  mens  wage  standards.  More  obvious  is  the  men- 
ace to  the  men's  rates  if  women  are  not  generally  mfenor  as 
workers,  and  if  they  are  employed  at  a  lower  wage  scale  under 
the  other  forms  of  substitution. 

The  evidence  obtainable  on  the  relative  wages  received  by 
men  workers  and  by  the  women  who  replaced  them  shows  that 
just  that  danger  exists.    While  most  of  the  women  substitutes 
have  gained  an  improved  financial  position,  they  have  not,  on 
the  whole,  reached  a  plane  of  economic  equality  with  the  men 
whom  they  have  replaced.  In  January,  1916,  the  Libour  Gasette. 
looking  back  over  1915,  said  that  "The  extensive  substitution  of 
women  and  young  persons  for  men  has  tended  to  lower  wages 
jwr  head  for  those  employed.'"     The  nearest  approaches  to  the 
men's  level  seem  to  have  been  attained  in  occupations  covered  by 
trade  union  agreements  which  require  the  payment  of  the  men's 
wage  sca'e  to  the  women.     The  government,  in  the  munitions 
industry,  has  definitely  gone  on  record  in  support  of  the  "equal 
pay"  principle,  and  has,  to  some  extent,  put  it  into  actual  effect. 
Changes  in  industrial  method  and  non-observance  of  the  awards 
have  worked  against  the  complete  reaching  of  such  a  standard, 
though  unquestionably  the  wages  of  women  substitutes  in  muni- 
tions work  are  much  higher  than  the  former  level  of  women's 
wages.     Tn  trades  covered  neither  by  union  agreement  nor  legal 
regulation,  women  are  generally  receiving  what  is  high  pay  ac- 
cording'to  their  previous  wage  scale,  but  investigators  believe 
that  the  mens  level  has  not  even  approximately  been  reached. 


>  Labour  Gasette.  January,  1916,  p.  5. 


CHAPTER  XI 
HounofWork 

Since  the  working  hours  of  women  in  English  industry  have 
long  been  regulated  by  law,  the  discussion  of  the  effects  of  the 
war  on  working  time  centers  in  the  modifi.ations  in  the  legisla- 
tion made  because  of  war  conditions.  The  main  facts  are  com- 
paratively well  known  in  America.  The  early  war  time  extension 
of  hours,  the  discovery  that  the  previous  limitations  had  operated 
in  the  interests  of  industrial  efficiency  as  well  as  humanitarian 
considerations,  and  the  final  restoration  of  almost  the  pre-war 
limit  of  working  hours,  are  fairly  familiar.  Certain  modifica- 
tions in  the  daily  hour  standards  are  still  allowed,  however,  and 
night  work  by  women  continues  common. 

At  the  outbreak  of  war  permitted  hours  were  ten  daily  and 
fifty-five  weekly  in  textile  factories,  and  ten  and  a  half  daily  and 
sixty  weekly,  with  a  limited  amount  of  overtime,  in  non-textile 
factories  and  workshops.  But  the  Secretarj-  of  State  had  the 
power  to  modify  these  restrictions  "in  case  of  any  public  emer- 
gency." The  factory  acts  allowed  him  at  such  periods  to  exempt 
work  on  government  contracts  and  in  government  factories  from 
hour  limitations  "to  the  extent  and  during  the  period  named 
by  him.'" 

The  Demand  for  Oivrtime 

A  demand  for  the  exercise  of  this  power  to  extend  women's 
hours  and  to  allow  them  to  do  night  and  Sunday  work  was  made 
by  manufacturers  of  army  supplies  in  the  early  days  of  the  war 
While  the  greatest  rush  of  government  orders  came  to  firms 
making  munitions,  clothing,  and  camp  equipment,  the  number  of 
trades  affected  was  "unexpectedly  great,  extending  from  big  guns 


>  Factory  and  Workshop  Act,  1901.  1  Edw.  7.  Ch.  22.  Sec.  150. 


112 


ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 


to  boot  P'"         >m  blankets  to  tapes,  from  motor  wagons  to 
cigaret ' 

The  i«..ory  ini^jectors  felt  that  they  were  facing  a  difficult 
problem.  01  lously  it  was  nece8sar>'  to  secure  the  greatest  pos- 
sible output,  but  it  was  equally  apparent  that  labor  would  soon 
break  down  if  unrestricted  overtime  were  permitted.  Moreover, 
"was  it  right  that  one  set  of  operatives  should  be  working  ex- 
cessive hours,  while  others  were  without  work  at  all?"  It  is 
well  to  keep  in  mind  also  that  at  this  time  the  Germans  were 
fighting  their  way  through  Belgium  and  advancing  on  Paris,  and 
that  the  expeditionary  force  must  at  all  costs  be  kept  supplied. 
In  the  emergency,  overtime  orders,  good  for  one  month  each, 
were  granted  individual  firms  who  requested  them  on  account  of 
war  demands.  These  orders  usually  permitted  women  to  work 
eitlier  in  eight-hour  or  twelve-hour  shifts  during  any  part  of  the 
twenty-four  hours,  or,  as  an  alternative  to  the  shift  system,  two 
hours  of  overtime  daily  on  each  of  five  days  were  allowed,  mak- 
ing a  seventy-hour  week.  Permission  to  work  Saturday  over- 
time or  Sundays  was  rarely  granted.  Additional  meal  periods 
were  required  if  overtime  was  worked. 

As  the  unemployment  crisis  passed,  "the  sole  problem"  came 
to  be  "what  scale  of  hours  was  likely  to  give  the  largest  amount 
of  production."  Steps  were  then  taken  to  replace  the  first  indi- 
vidual permits  for  exemptions  by  uniform  orders  for  an  entire 
trade.  The  latter  were  still  issued,  however,  not  for  the  indus- 
try as  a  whole,  but  only  to  individual  firms  applying  for  them. 
The  permits  were  largely  based  on  joint  conferences  with  em- 
ployers and  employes,  and  allowed  women  to  work  at  night  or 
some  eight  or  nine  hours  of  overtime  weekly.  The  latter  meant 
a  working  week  of  about  sixty-five  hours  in  textile  factories,  and 
between  sixty-five  and  seventy  in  other  forms  of  factory  work 
The  demands  of  employers  had  often  been  for  a  far  greater 
amount  of  overtime. 

The  most  extensive  modifications  of  the  law  were  made  for 


1  Great  Britain  Home  Office,  hi'pnrt  of  the  Chief  Inspector  of  Factories  and 
Workshops  for  1914,  P-  55. 


WOMEN  AND  CHItORIN  IN  GMEAT  BRITAIN 


113 


munition  plants  where,  on  account  of  the  "urgent  demand"  the 
inipecton  "recogniieH  that  latitude  on  a  very  wide  scale  muat  be 
permitted."  Night  work  under  either  the  two  or  the  three-shift 
system  was  allowed,  or  as  an  alternative  five  hours  of  overtime 
weekly  or  seven  and  a  half  in  cases  of  special  urgency.  But 
women  were  not  to  be  employed  on  Sundays  except  for  night 
work. 

From  August  4,  1914,  to  February  19,  1915,  a  toul  of  3,141 
overtime  permits  of  all  kinds  were  issued.'    Only  fifty-four  per- 
mits allowing  night  work  remained  in  force  at  the  end  of  1914, 
.lough  the  number  was  considerably  increased  in  the  first  quar 
terof  1915. 

But  overtime  by  women  workers  was  unfortunately  not  even 
confined  to  that  sanctioned  by  special  orders.  There  is  consid- 
erable evidence  that  long  hours  were  also  worked  illegally,  some- 
times entirely  without  permission,  in  other  cases  above  the  per- 
mitted modifications.  In  September,  1914,  the  belief  spread 
about  that  the  factory  acts  were  wholly  in  abeyance  until  the 
end  of  the  war,  and  the  factory  insp,xtors  admit  that  undoubt- 
edly many  cases  of  "long  hours  without  legal  sanction"  occurred. 
Yet  "these  have  been  steadily  brought  under  better  control,  the 
more  steadily  because  of  the  knowledge  of  intelligent  manufac- 
turers that  unlimited  hours  can  not  be  worked  without  detriment 
to  output,  or  in  the  long  run  without  encroaching  on  workers' 
reserves."'  According  to  the  factory  inspectors,  this  section  of 
the  manufacturers  made  more  resistance  to  excessive  overtime 
at  this  period  than  the  workers  themselves.  In  the  critical  days 
when  the  Germans  were  advancing  toward  Paris,  many  women 
were  ready  to  work  all  day  and  all  night  on  army  supplies.  Ex- 
cept in  surgical  dressing  factories,  where  the  girls  were  ver\ 
young  and  the  work  ver>-  monotonous,  the  operatives  were  said 
to  show  "a  spirit  of  sustained,  untiring  effort  never  seen  before 
and  most  admirable."     One  girl  is  quoted  as  saying.  "My  sweet- 


•  See  Appendix  F. 

'Great  Britain  Home  Office.  Ri-l>ort  of  the  Chief  tnspcilor  of  Factories 
and  Workshops  for  igi4.  p.  .19. 


114 


RCOWOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WA« 


heart.  he'»  out  there,  and  my  two  brothers,  to  I  nwy  as  well  be 
working."  and  a  woman  remarked  that  she  wantef*  t^  be  able  to 
write  her  husband  in  the  trenches  that  she  was  "doing  her  share."* 
An  appeal  to  the  workers  was  made  by  Lord  Kitchener  early  in 
the  war  to  the  effect  that  "in  carrying  out  the  great  work  of  pro- 
viding the  army  with  it*  e<|u'pment  employers  and  employes 
alike  are  doing  their  duty  for  their  King  and  country  equally  with 
those  who  have  joined  the  army  for  service  in  the  field."  This 
was  often  posted  in  factories,  and  helped  to  stimulate  the  women 
to  work  long  hours  without  complaint. 

Women's  Working  Hows  in  tg'S 
Authorities  differ  alwut  women's  working  hours  in  1915  in  a 
way  that  makes  it  difficult  to  determine  the  exact  situation.  The 
factory  inspectors  showed  a  consideraWe  degree  of  optimism. 
From  their  point  of  view  the  total  numbers  of  hour  law  niodifi- 
cations  in  force  remained  large,  but  the  ammmt  of  overtime  and 
week-end  work  declined,  and  the  problem  of  violations  was  not 

serious. 

In  certain  important  industries,  particularly  clothing,  boots, 
shirts,  leather  equipment,  and  surgical  dressings,  the  need  for 
overtime  had  "f-r  the  present  at  all  events  ceased."  ^et  the 
total  number  of  requests  for  exemptions  was  no  less,  though 
there  was  "a  marked  reduction  in  the  amount  of  latitude  sought 
and  allowed :  for  instance,  fresh  demands  for  permission  to  work 
on  Sundays  are  now  rarely  received,  and  are  confined  to  cases 
whet?  sudden  and  unexpected  emergency  arises  or  the  processes 
are  continuous.  Requests  for  Saturday  afternoon  work  have 
also  become  less  common,  and  there  seems  to  be  a  more  general 
recognition  of  the  advantages  of  a  week-end  rest.  .  .  .  Sunday 
labor  has  been  found  to  be  more  and  more  unsatisfactory;  apart 
from  the  ill  effects  which  must  follow  from  a  long  continued 
spell  of  working  seven  days  a  week,  it  too  often  results  in  loss 

1  Great  Britain  Home  Office,  Report  of  the  Chi.f  Inspector  of  Factories 
and  IVorkshops  for  I9'4,  P-  ^- 


WnMF.K  AND  rHlLDHEN  IK  OUKAT  B«IT.\IV 


115 


of  time  on  other  dayt  of  the  week  ind  in  comcquent  diiorgani- 
Mtion." 

Only  fifty  orders  allowing  Sunday  work  by  women  and  girls 
were  outstanding  in  December,  1915.  These  orders  were  strictly 
CL  iitioned.  Sunday  work  was  to  be  allowed  only  in  cases  of 
emergency  and  for  part  of  the  day,  and  was  not  to  be  carried  on 
in  any  two  consecutive  weeks.  Moderate  ho\jrs  through  the 
week  and  time  off  on  Saturday!  were  required. 

.Besides  orders  covering  some  tw  nty-seven  different  trades 
affected  by  war  demands,  a  general  order  was  issued  modifying 
the  statute  law  in  all  other  non-textile  .'wtories  in  which  exem|>- 
tions  were  legal.  The  weekly  total  of  sixty  hours  was  not  to 
be  exceeded,  but  greater  elasticity  in  daily  hours  was  permitted 
up  to  a  maximum  of  fourteen  hou'^  in  any  one  day.  The  1914 
general  overtime  order  was  continued  in  the  munitions  industry. 
The  factory  inspectors  noted  or  one  hand  that  "many  of  the 
schemes  put  forward  were  considerably  within  the  maximum 
allowed,  and  even  where  the  maximum  was  sought  it  has  been 
found  in  practice  thai  the  full  number  of  hours  were  frequently 
not  worked,"  and  on  the  other  hand  that  many  special  orders 
had  been  required,  especially  for  tne  large  munition  firms,  in  some 
of  which  the  hours  remained  longer  than  those  permitted  by  the 
general  order  for  the  trade.  But  on  the  whole  there  was  "ob- 
ser\'able  a  distinct  tendency  towards  a  reduction  of  hours  in 
these  works  as  elsewhere."' 

Moreover,  the  tendency  grew  during  the  year  "to  substitute  a 
system  of  shifts  for  the  long  day  followed  by  overtime."  The 
factory  inspectors  urged  the  introduction  of  the  three-shift  sys- 
tem, but  owing  to  the  scarcity  of  skilled  male  tool-setters  and 
other  mechanics  and  sometimer-  of  women,  two  twelve-hour  shifts 
(■generally  ten  and  a  half  hours  of  actual  work)  were  much 
more  prevalent.  The  inspectors  maintained,  however,  the  su- 
periority of  three  shifts,  giving  one  example  where  the  change 


>  Great  Britain  Home  Office,  Report  of  Ike  Chief  Inspector  of  Factories 
and  Workshops  for  igis.  p.  6. 
•  See  .Appendix  G. 


116 


BONOif  ic  irricTi  or  the  war 


had  been  made  in  which  output  incrcued  by  a  third  whilt  the 
need  for  luperviaion  dimini*hed.  But  it  should  be  noted  that 
although  the  shift  system  brought  a  reduction  of  overtime  to 
women  workers,  it  involved  an  increasing  'ount  of  night  work. 
The  factory  inspectors  had  but  slight  v.atcisms  to  make  of 
illegal  overtime  and  violations  of  orders.  "There  is  little  cauK 
for  complaint  as  to  the  proper  observance  of  the  conditions  of 
the  orders,"  except  in  the  Midlands.  A  few  cases  of  serious 
irregularity  were  found  elsewhere,  but  were  "striking  exceptions 
to  the  general  rule.  .  .  .  The  most  general  cause  of  complaint 
is  that  occupiers  have  taken  upon  themselves  to  work  overtime 
without  authority,  and  have  continued  it  without  applying  for  a 
renewal  of  their  orders.  There  has  been  neglect,  too.  in  affix- 
ing notices  specifying  the  hours  of  work."' 

But  it  is  probable  that  during  at  least  part  of  1915  the  optimism 
of  the  factory  inspectors  regarding  the  shortening  of  hours  and 
elimination  of  il'egal  overtime  wa»  not  completely  justified. 
Under  powers  granted  by  the  Defense  of  the  Realm  .\ct  an  order 
of  June  6,  1915.'  extended  the  right  of  the  Secretary  of  State  tc 
modify  the  labor  laws  in  a  way  which  investigators  state  "proved 
very  difficult  to  handle  properiy."*  The  modifications  could  be 
made,  not  onlv  in  government  factories  and  on  government  con- 
t.^L-ts,  but  in  "any  factory  ...  in  which  the  Secretary  of  State 
is  satisfied  that  by  reason  of  the  loss  of  men  or  transference  to 
government  service,  or  of  other  circumstances  arising  out  of  the 
present  war  exemption  is  necessary  to  secure  the  caTying  on  of 
v/ork  .   .   .  required  in  the  nation.*"]  interest." 

Complaints  ot"  exces.sive  hours  and  violation  of  overtime  orders 
multiplied.  Officials  of  the  Ministry  of  Munitions  admitted, 
during  a  visit  to  the  United  States  in  the  autumn  of  1917.  that 
for  four  to  six  months  after  the  shortage  of  munitions  w.ns  dis- 
covered in  the  spring  of  1915,  many  women  worked  nearly  a 


'  Great  Britain  Home  Office,  Reforl  of  Ike  Chief  tHspector  of  Faitoriei 
and  iVorkshops  for  iQif,  p.  9. 

•  Order  No.  551. 

■John  and  Katherine  Barrett.  British  Industrial  Conditions  during  Iht 
War,  Sen.  Doc.  114,  6Sth  Cong.,  1st  Sess. 


WOMBM   AND  CHII.DNKN  IN  URCAT  BRITAIN 


117 


hundred  hiniri  a  week. '  A  caM  wa*  cited  in  the  Houm  of  Com- 
mom  o(  a  factor>-  where  girl*  were  working  regularly  ten  and  a 
half  hours  a  day  teven  day*  a  week,  and  had  worked  ninety-five 
houri  a  week  "many  time*"  since  the  beginning  of  the  war. 
Another  much  quoted  case  was  that  of  a  firm  holding  an  exemp- 
tion allowin|(  moderate  overtime  which  worked  one  girl  thirty 
hours  at  a  stretch  and  another  twentv-fivc  and  a  half  hours.  The 
second  girl,  who  was  under  eighteen,  then  met  with  an  accident 
which  brought  the  situation  to  the  attention  of  the  factory  in- 
spectors. .\  prosecution  was  sUrted,  but  at  the  first  trial  the 
case  was  dismissed  on  the  grounds  of  a  national  necessity.  At  a 
second  trial  the  counsel  for  the  defense  called  the  prosecution  "a 
piece  of  fatuous  folly,  only  justified  by  supreme  ignorance,"  and 
said  that  the  Home  Office,  instead  of  prosecuting  "ought  to  have 
struck  a  special  medal"  for  the  girls.  "Now  is  not  the  time  to 
talk  about  factory  acts."'  The  employer  was  finally  put  on 
probation. 

However,  in  the  latter  part  of  1915,  and  orincipally  as  a  result 
of  the  unsatisfactory  conditions  there  took  place  the  first  of  a 
new  series  of  developments  which  were  to  bring  back  women's 
hours  almost  to  pre-war  standards  and  to  improve  greatly  the 
scientific  basis  for  the  restriction  of  working  hours. 

To  the  Ministry  of  Munitions  is  mainly  due  the  new  commit- 
tees which  were  largely  responsible  for  the  change.  A  special 
agent  for  the  Federal  Trade  Commission  states  that : 

Toward  the  end  of  1915  it  became  cert.iin  that  some  ac- 
tion would  have  to  be  taken  by  the  ministry  to  deal  with 
the  question  of  excessive  hours,  more  particularly  those 
worked  by  women  and  boys.  The  department's  attention 
was  drawn  to  the  fact  that  the  maximum  number  of  weekly 
hours  allowed  under  the  provisions  of  the  general  order 
made  under  the  factory  acts  was  continually  being  exceeded 
and  that  without  the  support  of  the  ministry  the  home  office 
found  it  increasingly  difficult  to  insure  that  no  persons 
should  work  excessive  hours.' 

« G.  D.  H.  Coif.  Labour  m  IVar  Time,  1915.  p.  273. 

'John  Bass.  Report  to  the  United  States  Federal  Trades  Comtni4sion, 
April  17,  1917. 


118 


ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  Of  THE  WAR 


The  ac  jon  took  the  form  of  the  appointment  of  an  interdepart- 
mental committee  on  hours  of  labor  which  included  represent? 
tives  ji  the  Home  Office,  the  Admiralty,  various  supply  <'  pim- 
mer.ts,  and  the  Welfare  Section  of  the  Ministry  of  Mui  itions. 
T'je  committee  considered  "claims  from  employers  eitl  r  'or 
permission  to  work  on  Sunday,  or  for  exceptionally  long  i  it- 
during  the  week,  and  its  inquiries  have  resulted  not  only  in  a 
reduction  of  Sunday  work,  but  in  a  more  favorable  redistribution 
of  hours  generally.'"  In  October,  1915,  it  secured  the  discon- 
tinuance of  practically  all  Sunday  work  in  munition  factories  on 
the  northeast  coast. 

In  September,  1915,  the  better  known  Health  of  Munition 
Workers  Committee  was  appointed  by  the  Minister  of  Munitions 
with  the  concurrence  of  the  Home  Secretary  "to  consider  and 
advise  on  questions  of  industrial  fatigue,  hours  of  labor,  and 
other  matters  affecting  the  personal  health  and  physical  efficiency 
of  workers  in  munition  factories  and  workshops."  By  Novem- 
ber the  Ministry  had  referred  to  this  committee  the  question  of 
Sunday  work  and  of  the  substitution  of  the  three-shift  for  the 
two-shift  system. 

Even  before  its  recommendations  were  received  the  Ministry 
took  steps  to  discourage  Sunday  work  and  the  employment  of 
women  at  night.  A  circular  was  sent  to  all  controlled  establish- 
ments urging  that  all  workers  should  be  granted  a  weekly  rest 
|,eriod — preferably  Sunday — both  for  their  own  good  and  in  the 
interests  of  production.     The  circular  said,  in  part : 

The  aim  should  be  to  work  not  more  than  twelve  shifts 
per  fortnight  or  twenty-four  where  double  shifts  are  worked. 

.  .  Where  three  eight-hour  shifts  are  worked,  not  less 
than  two  should  be  omitted  on  Sunday.  It  is,  in  the  opinion 
of  the  Minister,  preferable  to  work  a  moderate  amount  of 
overtime  during  the  week,  allowing  a  break  on  Sunday, 
rather  than  work  continuously  from  day  to  day.  It  is  still 
more  strongly  his  view  that  where  overtime  is  worked  in 
the  week.  Sunday  lalx^r  is  not  desirable. 

1  Great  Britain  Home  Office,  Report  of  the  Chief  Inspector  of  Factories 
and  ll'orkshops  for  iqi},  P-  6. 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


119 


Another  circular  of  instructions  in  November,  1915,  recom- 
mended that  under  the  two-shift  system,  women  should  be  em- 
ployed "as  far  as  is  reasonably  practicable"  by  day  rather  than 
by  night. 

Later  Developments 

Scientific  studies  in  fatigue,  and  improvements  in  the  regula- 
tion of  working  hours,  continued  to  be  the  chief  features  of  the 
women's  hour  situation  in  1916  and  1917.  Two  reports  made 
for  the  Home  Office  by  Dr.  A.  F.  Stanley  Kent  on  ^w  Investigo 
tion  of  industrial  Fatigue  by  Physiological  Methods,  showed,  as 
the  result  of  actual  experiments  with  working  days  of  different 
length,  that  overtime  may  "defeat  its  own  object"  and  actually 
cause  a  diminution  in  "total  daily  output."  The  first  report 
which  had  been  published  in  August,  1915,  was  of  less  direct 
practical  importance,  gfiving  merely  a  description  of  a  number  of 
tests  adapted  to  showing  fatigue  in  factory  workers.  The  sec- 
ond report,  issued  in  September,  1916,  was  a  study  of  output  and 
the  effects  of  fatigue  in  certain  plants  making  war  equipment 
under  working  days  of  different  length.  .Among  its  most  signifi- 
cant conclusions  from  the  point  of  view  of  hour  restriction  were 
the  following: 


A  worker  employed  for  10  hours  per  day  may  produce 
a  greater  output  than  when  employed  for  12  hours,  the 
extra  rest  being  more  than  sufficient  to  compensate  for  the 
loss  of  time. 

A  worker  employed  for  8  hours  per  day  rnny  produce  a 
greater  output  than  another  of  equal  capacity  working  12 
hours  per  day. 

A  group  of  workers  showed  an  absolute  increase  of  over 
5  per  cent  of  output  as  a  result  of  diminution  of  16^  per 
cent  in  the  length  of  the  working  day. 

.\nother  group  increased  their  average  rate  of  output  from 
262  to  276  as  a  result  of  shortening  the  day  from  12  hours 
to  10  and  to  316  on  a  further  shortening  of  2  hours. 

Under  the  conditions  studied  neither  rate  of  working  nor 


120 


ECONOMIC  EFFKCTS  OF  THE  WAK 


total  output  attains  a  maximum  when  a  12-hour  day  is 

adoptee}.* 
Two  other  scientific  reports  on  the  subject  dealt  with  The 
Question  of  Fatigue  from  the  Economic  Standpoint,  and  were 
put  out  by  a  committee  of  the  British  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Science  in  September,  1915,  and  September,  1916, 
respectively.  The  monographs  emphasized  the  importance  of 
an  observation  of  fatigue  in  the  workers  and  adaptation  of  the 
hours  of  labor  thereto.  The  memoranda  and  reports  of  the 
Health  -f  Munition  Workers  Committee  are  the  best  known  of 
this  group  of  studies,  no  doubt  because  besides  being  the  work  of 
scientific  investigators,  they  were  carried  on  to  form  a  basis  for 
official  action,  and  contained  definite  recommendations  for  the 
shortening  of  hours  in  order  to  improve  output.  While  they 
dealt  with  munitions  work  alone,  the  principles  brought  out  are 
equally  applicable  to  any  form  of  industrial  occupation. 

The  first  memorandum  published  in  November,  1915,  covered 
the  subject  of  Sunday  labor,  and  recommended  without  qualifica- 
tions a  weekly  rest  day  for  all  classes  of  workers. 

.  .  .  If  the  maximum  output  is  to  be  secured  and  main- 
tained for  any  length  of  time,  a  weekly  period  '^^  rest  must 
be  allowed.     Except   for  quite  short  peri  ->tinuous 

work,  in  their  view,  is  a  profound  mistake  ai.  ot  pay 

— output  is  not  increased.  .  .  .  Some  ai  .  lUst  be 
taken  in  regard  to  continuous  labor  and  excessive  hours  of 
work  if  it  is  desired  to  secure  and  maintain,  over  a  long 
period,  the  maximum  output.     .     .     . 

Should  the  early  stoppage  :-i  all  Sunday  work  be  consid- 
ered for  any  reason  difficult  if  not  impossible  to  bring  about, 
the  committee  trust  that  it  will  at  least  be  practicable  to  lay 
down  the  principle  that  Sunday  labor  is  a  serious  evil  which 
should  be  steadily  and  systematically  discouraged  and  re- 
stricted. 

For  women  and  for  "young  persons,"  the  need  oi  aoolishing 
Sunday  work  and  granting  week-end  and  other  holidays  was  even 


•  A.  F.  Stanley  Kent,  Serond  Interim  Report  on  an  Investigation  of  Indus- 
trial Fatigue  by  Physiological  Methods,  Home  Office,  1916,  p.  44. 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


121 


more  urgent  than  for  adult  males.  "The  committee  are  strongly 
of  opinion  that  for  women  and  girls  a  portion  of  Saturday  and 
the  whole  of  Sunday  should  be  available  for  rest,  and  that  the 
periodic  factory  holidays  should  not,  on  any  account,  be  omit- 
ted.'" 

The  committee  went  on  record  in  favor  of  a  return  to  the  pre- 
war legal  standard  of  weekly  hours.  "Continuous  work  in  ex- 
cess of  the  normal  legal  limit  of  sixty  hours  per  week  ought  to  be 
discontinued  as  soon  as  practicable,"  though  the  hours  permitted 
in  any  one  day  might  vary  somewhat  more  than  the  factory  acts 
allowed.'  There  was,  for  instance,  "little  objection  to  such  mod- 
erate overtime  during  the  week  as  can  be  compensated  for  by  an 
earlier  stop  on  Saturdays."  But,  in  general,  "The  need  for 
overtime  amongst  women  and  girls  is  much  less  pressing  than  it 
is  for  men,  they  are  rarely  employed  on  highly  skilled  work,  and 
where  there  is  still  a  good  reserve  of  labor  there  should  be  little 
difficulty  in  gradually  introducing  shifts.  .  .  .  [The  committee] 
strongly  urge  that  wherever  practicable  overtime  should  be  aban- 
doned in  favor  of  shifts." 

Three  systems  of  hours  were  found  in  operation  in  munition 
plants.  There  was  the  single  shift  of  thirteen-fourteen  hours 
including  meal  times,  which  was  known  as  the  "overtime  system," 
two  twelve-hour  and  three  eight-hour  shifts.  The  committee 
considered  that  in  the  long  run  the  latter  yielded  the  best  re:>iilt= 
with  women  workers. 


The  committee  recommend  the  adoption  of  the  three- 
shifts  system  without  overtime,  wherever  a  sufficient  supply 
of  labor  is  available.  Where  the  supply  is  governed  by  diffi- 
culties of  housing  and  transit,  the  committee  are  of  opinion 


'The  latter  quotation  comes  from  Memorandum  Xo,  4.  "Employment  of 
Women  and  Girls."  which  appeared  in  January,  1916.  and  discussed  daily 
hours,  night  work  and  rest  periods,  as  well  as  Sunday  labor. 

'A  later  report  by  the  committee  stated  that  the  hours  "proyisionally" 
fixed  were  probably  too  long,  except  for  very  short  periods  or  for  very 
light  work  carried  on  under  exceptionally  good  conditions,  while  the  hour's 
which  produced  the  largest  output  varied  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
work,  age  and  sex  of  the  workers,  and  conditions  inside  and  outside  the 
factory:  in  general,  "the  time  was  ripe"  for  a  further  marked  reduction  in 
hours.    Memorandum  No.  20.  October,  1917. 


122  ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 

that  every  effort  should  be  made  to  overcome  these  diffi- 
cuhJes  before  a  less  serviceable  system  be  continued  or 

adopted.     ...  •         .1. 

They  [eight-hour  shifts]  involve  little  or  no  stram  on  th" 
workers :  the  periods  during  which  machinery  stand  idle  for 
meals  are  verv  much  reduced,  while  significant  statements 
have  been  put  before  the  committee  claiming  beneficial  effects 
upon  output. 
Observations  were  later  made  for  the  committee  of  a  group  of 
nearly  a  hundred  women  over  a  period  of  about  thirteen  months 
during  which  time  their  actual  weekly  working  hours  were  re- 
duced from  sixty-si.x  on  seven  days  to  forty-five  on  six  days. 
Yet  output  rose  nine  per  cent.    The  committee  concluded : 

For  women  engaged  in  moderately  heavy  lathe  work  a 
50-hour  week  vields  as  good  an  output  as  a  66-hour  week, 
and  a  considerably  better  one  than  a  77-hour  week.* 

In  regard  to  night  work,  however,  the  committee  felt  that  the 
exigencies  oi  war  time  prevented  a  return  to  a  really  desirable 
standard.  "The  employment  of  women  at  night  is,  without  ques- 
tion, undesirable,  yet  now  it  is  for  a  time  inevitable."  It  de- 
manded special  care  and  supervision  and  the  use  of  such  sate- 
guards  as  would  reduce  its  risks  to  the  minimum.  "In  no  case 
should  the  hours  worked  at  night  exceed  sixty  per  week." 
Whether  continuous  night  shifts  or  alternate  day  and  night  shifts 
should  be  worked  was  a  matter  to  be  settled  by  local  consider- 
ations. 

Another  interesting  point  in  the  Health  of  Munition  Workers 
Committee  memoranda  was  the  recognition  of  the  value  of  brief 
rest  periods  within  working  hours.  "Pauses,  well  distributed 
and  adapted  in  length  to  the  needs  of  women  workers,  are,"  it 
was  said,  "of  the  greatest  value  in  averting  breakdown  and  giv- 
ing an  impetus  to  production."  Particularly  with  night  work 
"af' equate  pauses  for  rest  and  meals  are  indispensable."  On 
twelve-hour  shifts,  two  breaks  of  three-quarters  of  an  hour  each 

>  Great  Britain  Ministry  of  Munitions,  Health  of  Munition  Workers  Com- 
mittee. Memoravdum  S'n.  iS.  "Further  Statistical  Information  Concernmg 
Output  in  Relation  to  Hours  of  Work,"  1917,  p.  4. 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GRE»T  BRITAIN 


123 


for  meals  should  be  taken  out,  while  on  an  eight-hour  shift  a 
half  hour  for  one  meal  was  sufficient.  Though  the  statutes 
allowed  five  hours  of  continuous  work  in  nun-textile  and  four 
and  a  h.  "f  in  textile  factories,  many  managers  believe  that  four 
hours  is  the  longest  period  during  which  a  woman  can  maintain 
continuous  work  at  full  vigor.  Within  this  period  a  pause  of 
ten  minutes  has  been  found  to  give  excellent  results. 

The  reports,  showing  as  they  did  that  "the  hours  which  con- 
duce most  to  a  satisfactory  home  life  and  to  health  conduce  most 
to  output,"  have  already  had  a  notable  influence  both  in  this 
country  and  in  England  in  sirenjrthening  the  scientific  basis  for 
labor  legislation.  For  instance,  on  October  3,  1916,  a  sig.iificant 
clause  was  added  to  the  order  permitting  overtime  work,  allow- 
ing it  where  necessary  on  account  of  the  war,  only  if  "such  ex- 
emption can  be  granted  without  detriment  to  the  national  in- 
terest."' 

The  interdepartmental  Hours  of  Labour  Committee  used  the 
reco"imendations  briefly  outlined  above  as  the  basis  for  its  work, 
formulating  a  new  gen.  al  order  regulating  overtime,  which  was 
finally  issued  by  the  Home  Office  September  9.  1916,  after  pro- 
longed criticism  by  all  the  supply  departments.  The  order  ap- 
plied to  all  controlled  establishments  and  national  workshops  and 
might  be  extended  to  any  other  munitions  work.  In  other  cases 
there  was  to  be  a  return  to  factorj'  act  hours. 

Hours  not  allowed  by  the  factory  act  or  the  order  in 
question  are  not  to  be  worked  after  the  1st  October.  1916, 
unless  expressly  sanctioned  by  special  order  from  the  Home 
Office.  Applications  for  such  special  orders  will  not  in 
future  be  entertained  save  in  exceptional  circumstances  and 
in  respect  of  work  of  a  specially  urgent  character.* 

Three  schemes  of  working  hours  w-ere  provided  for,  a  three- 
shift  system,  two  shifts,  and  a  rearrangement  of  statutory  hours. 
Under  the  first  plan  no  shift  migh  '  longer  than  ten  hours  and 
a  weekly  rest  day  was  compulsory-.     Weekly  hours  under  the 

'  Great  Britain,  Defence  of  the  Realm  Act.  Order  Xo.  703. 
-  Home  Office,  General  Order,  Sept.  9,  1916,  p.  1. 


1 


124 


ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 


two-shift  system  were  not  to  exceed  sixty,  and  a  maximum  of 
six  shifts  was  to  be  worked  in  any  one  week.  The  third  scheme 
also  limited  weekly  hours  to  sixty,  and  required  working  hours 
to  fall  between  6  a.m.  and  10  p.m.,  but  as  much  as  twelve 
hours  might  be  worked  in  a  single  day.  Hours  for  meals  were 
fixed  according  to  the  Health  of  Munition  Wo'';ers  Committee 
recommendations.  In  cases  of  special  emergency  in  naval  ship 
repairing  women  might  work  a  maximum  of  sixty-five  hours 
weekly.  They  might  only  be  employed  at  night  if  supervised 
by  a  woman  welfare  worker  or  "responsible  forewoman."  Except 
for  the  night  work,  the  order  was  practically  a  return  to  pre- 
war standards.^ 

The  Ministry  of  Munitions  supplemented  these  efforts  by 
ordering  the  "investigating  officers."  of  the  labor  regulation 
section  of  its  labor  department,  who  had  charge  of  all  labor 
matters  except  dilution  and  the  supply  of  labor,  to  report  cases 
of  excessive  overtime  and  unnecessary  Sunday  work  in  con- 
trolled establishments,  with  a  view  to  having  an  order  issued 
prohibiting  it.  An  official  circular  of  March  17.  1916.  urged 
that  more  use  be  made  of  "week-end  volunteers,"  so  that  all 
workers  might  ha^e  a  Sunday  rest,  "both  in  the  interest  of  the 
work-people  and  of  production."  But  the  numbers  of  "week-end 
munition  relief  workers"  remained  small,  due  to  the  attitude 
both  of  the  firms  and  of  the  workers,  who  could  not  afford  to 
lose  their  Sunday  pay.' 

How  far  did  investigationr  and  orders  result  in  reasonable 
hours  of  work  in  munition  plants  and  other  factories?  This 
is  a  question  naturally  hard  to  answer  from  documentary  evi- 
dence alone.  But  apparently  the  situation  has  in  many  cases  been 
improved.  The  Ministry  of  Munitions  gained  more  direct  con- 
trol over  the  regulation  of  hours  in  January,  1916,  through  the 
munitions  amendment  act.  by  which  it  was  empowered  to  fix 
women's  hours  on  munitions  work  in  all  establishments  where 
"leaving  certificates"  were  required. 

'  See  Appendix  H. 

«  Women's  Industrial  News.  April,  1916.  pp.  17,  18. 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN   IX  C.REAT  BRITAIN 


l-'5 


Some  complaints  of  unreasonably  long  hours  still  persisted. 
The  Woman  Worker  reported  during  the  winter  of  1916  the  case 
of  a  Scottish  factory  making  cores  for  grenade  bombs  which 
opened  at  6  a.m.  and  closed  at  8  p.m.  the  first  five  days  of  the 
week  and  at  6  p.m.  on  Saturdays  and  Sundays,  making  a  work- 
ing week  of  eighty-two  hours  exclusive  of  meal  times.'  Investi- 
gators likewise  stated  that  the  labor  shortage  and  the  urgency 
of  the  demand  have  "frequently"  caused  the  recommendations  to 
be  exceeded.^ 

On  the  other  hand,  both  in  the  Clyde  district  and  around  Bir- 
mingham the  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science 
state<l,  in  April,  1916,  that  the  working  week  varied  from  forty- 
four  to  fifty-six  hours,  fifty- four  hours  being  the  most  common 
period.  In  Augnst,  1916,  the  then  Minister  of  Muniti'  .  Dr. 
Christopher  Addison,  said  in  Parliament  in  response  to  q  -tions 
that  the  int'.Tdepartmental  committee  was  taking  steps  tc.  iring 
the  working  week  within  the  sixty-hour  limit  in  all  controlled  es- 
tablishments. And  an  investigation  by  the  factory  inspectors  in 
1916  found  that  out  of  243  "controlled  establishments"  123  were 
working  within  the  regular  sixty-hour  limit  and  only  fifteen  were 
working  "irregular  and  excessive"  hours,  though  in  nineteen  the 
breaks  for  rest  periods  and  meals  in  some  way  violated  the  con- 
ditions of  the  order. 

Mr.  H.  W.  Garrod  of  the  Ministry  of  Munitions,  while  in  the 
United  States  in  November,  1917,  gave  the  average  working 
hours  for  women  munition  makers  as  fifty-two  to  fifty-four, 
with  one  to  four  hours  of  overtime.  He  said  that  the  Ministry 
wanted  to  do  away  with  overtime  altogether,  but  that  the  women 
objected,  because  it  would  reduce  their  earnings. 

Much  attention  was  paid  to  the  question  of  Sunday  work  by 
the  interdepartmental  hours  committee.  In  January,  1916.  it  ob- 
tained a  weekly  rest  period  for  all  women  in  explosives  factories 
under  continuous  operation.     It  soon  secured  the  entire  discon- 


'  The  Woman  Worker.  Feb.,  1916,  p.  10. 

'John   and   Katherine   Barrett,   British   Industrial  Experience   during   the 
War,  Sen.  Doc.  114,  6Stli  Cong.,  1st  Sess. 


126 


ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 


tinuance  of  Sunday  work  by  "protected  persons"  in  national  pro- 
jectile and  shell  factones  except  a  short  shift  in  the  projectile  es- 
Ublishments  for  "n  tifying"  shells  and  cleaning  the  shop.  In 
April,  1917,  almost  all  Sunday  work  by  all  classes  of  workers 
was  abolished  in  every  controlled  and  national  munition  plant.' 
The  Ministry  ordered  that  the  customary  factory  holidays  be  ol>- 
served  by  all  controlled  estaWishmcnU  in  the  summer  >f  1917. 

Night  work  for  women,  which  has  never  been  rect  nended 
for  abolition  during  the  emergency,  of  course  persis.ed  d  even 
tended  to  increase,  as  more  and  more  plants  went  into  loiuinuous 
operation.  Especially  in  shell  factories  large  numbers  of  women 
worked  at  night. 

In  1916  at  least  eight-hour  shifts  had  failed  to  "make  much 
progress"  and  twelve-hour  shif*  •  still  "predominant."'    The 

latter,  it  should  be  noted,  mean,.  ..  A  twelve  but  ten  and  a  half 
hours  of  actual  work  over  a  twelve-hour  period.  Certain  large 
munition  establishments,  including  at  least  one  government  fac- 
tor>-,  even  changed  from  the  eight  to  the  twelve-hour  shift  in 
1916.'  Besides  the  shortage  of  labor  it  was  said  that  the  workers 
disliked  the  necessary  changes  in  meal  times  and  living  arrange- 
ments under  the  shorter  system,  and  that  transportation  schedules 
were  not  conveniently  adjusted  to  it.  It  was  alleged  that  young 
girls  preferred  the  longer  hours  because  they  then  escaped  help- 
ing with  the  housework!  By  .April,  1917.  however,  an  investiga- 
tor for  the  British  government  was  said  to  report  that  women 
were  working  eight-hour  shifts  in  all  government  plants,  not 
through  any  general  order  but  through  the  action  of  various  local 
committees  to  whom  the  power  of  regulating  hour>  had  been 
entrusted.* 

Outside  the  munitions  industry  the  factory  inspectors  reported 
"numerous  applications"  for  overtime  orders  in  1916,  involving, 

>  Henrictte  R.  Walter.  "Munition  Workers  in  England,"  Munition  Makers, 
p.  138. 

s  Great  Britain  Home  Office,  Report  of  the  Chief  Inspector  of  Factories 
and  Workshops  for  ii)j6,  p.  8. 

'  The  Woman  Worker.  May,  1916,  p.  12. 

«  Henriette  R.  Walter.  "Munition  Workers  in  England,"  Munition  Makers. 
p.  139. 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


127 


however,  a  rearrangement  of  daily  hours  rather  than  a  weekly 
total  bevontl  the  statutory  limit. 


Much  that  was  ahnomial  and  bound  to  be  injurious  to 
health  ii  long  continued  has  been  brought  within  manage- 
able limits.  Excessive  r/vertime  and  Sunday  labor  have  l)cen 
checki<l  and  as  nearly  as  possible  abolished.  ...  In 
general  the  experience  cf  war  emergency  work,  far  from 
making  employers  in  love  with  extended  hours  appears  to 
be  producing  a  contrary  cflfect  and  bringing  about  a  sense 
of  the  importance  of  so  limiting  ihe  period  of  employment 
uS  not  to  produce  any  feeling  of  exhaustion  or  even  of 
marked  fatigue. 

Fewer  factories  were  working  overtime  without  permission, 
though  some  prosecutions  were  necessary  in  the  woolen  industry. 
The  idea  that  the  factory  acts  were  in  al)eyance  till  the  end 
of  the  war  was  disappearing.  With  an  increased  recognition  of 
the  injury  done  to  both  quality  and  quantity  of  work  by  fatigue 
the  powers  available  under  overtime  orders  were  in  some  cases 
not  fully  used  by  the  employers.  One  emi^oyer  remarked  that 
overtime  orders  were  "like  a  drop  of  brandy,  a  useful  thing  to 
keep  in  the  house,  but  you  didn't  want  always  to  be  taking  it." 

While  a  woman  labor  leader  asserted  as  late  as  July,  191?,  that 
"the  factory  act  was  in  ruins"  and  that  dangerous  privileges 
"had  been  accorded  to  certain  classes  of  employers,"'  it  is  prob- 
able that  for  the  later  months  of  war  this  is  an  unduly  pessimistic 
point  of  view  and  that  the  more  cheerful  outlook  of  the  factory 
inspectors  is  the  better  grounded.  Even  in  1915.  when  working 
hours  were  probably  longest,  some  regulation  of  hours  existed. 
The  factory  acts  were  seriously  modified,  but  never  repealed. 
Since  that  time,  with  the  exception  of  night  work,  there  has  been 
a  virtual  return  to  pre-war  standards.  Along  with  this  has  come 
a  much  improved  knowledge  of  the  effects  of  fatigue,  which  will 
after  the  war  make  possible  the  revision  of  hour  standards  on  a 
more  scientific  foundation  than  ever  before. 


l/-^""*"  ^wrence,  as  reported  in  The  IVomcnS  Trade  Vninn  Review.  July. 


CHAPTER  XII 

Safety.  Health  and  Comfort 

A  considerable  improvement  in  other  working  condition*  for 
women  frequently  accompanied  the  change  for  the  worse  in  lioitr 
standards.    A*  women  were  brought  into  many  workshoi)s  for 
the  first  time  a  general  cleaning  up  often  took  place,  and  special 
accommodations  in  the  way  of  cloakrooms,  washrooms,  and  rest- 
rooms  became  necessary.     The  long  hours,  the  increasing  dis- 
tances which  many  workers  lived  from  the  factory,  and  the  in- 
stitution of  night  shifts  made  some  provision  for  getting  meals 
there  almost  imperative.    It  became  much  more  common  for  men 
and  women  to  work  together,  especially  on  night  shifts,  and  in 
many  cases  an  effort  was  made  to  solve  the  problems  thus  raised, 
and  those  coming  to  the  front  wherever  large  numbers  of  women 
were  taken  on.  by  appointing  woman  "welfare  suiwrvisors." 
Where  large  numbers  of  women  were  brought  from  a  distance 
to  work  in  munition  centers,  considerable  attention  was  paid  to 
the  betterment  of  living  conditions  outside  the  factory.    WTiile 
there  is  every  indication  that  the  lengthening  of  hours  will  be 
abandoned  aftei  the  war  emergency  has  passed,  the  improvements 
enumerated  seem  likely  to  mean  a  permanent  rise  in  EnRlish 
standards  of  working  conditions. 

The  1915  report  of  the  chief  factory  inspector  noted  that: 

The  introducti(?n  of  women  into  works  where  they  have 
not  hitherto  been  emploved  has  been  often  accompanied  by 
a  striking  degree  of  solicitude  on  the  part  of  the  managers 
for  their  welfare  and  comfort.  ...  A  question  arises 
why  has  the  manufacture  of  munitions  of  war  on  a 
terrible  scale  led  at  last  to  systematic  introduction  of  hy- 
gienic safeguards  that  factorv  inspectors  have  advocated 
for  many  vears.  such  as  supervision  of  women  by  women 
in  factorie's.  provision  of  means  for  personal  cleanliness, 
proper  meal  and  rest  rooms,  and  qualified  nurses?  Probably 
it  i<!  in  part  due  to  a  recognition  that  wages  alone  can  not 


WOMEN  AND  CIIILDKEN   IN  GRF.AT  BKITAIN 


129 


adequately  reward  thojte  who  serve  the  State  in  time  r>t  need, 
hut  it  also  points  again  to  the  new  general  awakening  to  the 
(icpendence  of  efficient  output  on  the  welfare  of  the  human 
agent.' 

Similarly,  many  large  Ixisiness  offices,  when  they  hired  women 
for  the  tirnt  time,  made  special  arrangi-inents  for  their  health  and 
comfort. 

Organised  Efforts 

Kxcept  for  the  requirement  by  the  Home  Office  that  "canteen" 
(restaurant)  facilities  should  be  provided  wherever  women  were 
employed  at  night,  the  efforts  just  descril)ed  were  not  in  the  be- 
ginning the  result  of  any  or  lized  propaganda.  But  soon  "wel- 
fare work"  came  within  tii^  scope  of  the  seemingly  boundless 
energy  of  the  Ministry  of  Munitions,  which  is  responsible  for 
stimulating  many  of  the  improvements,  as  it  was  for  much  of  the 
new  spirit  in  hour  regulation. 

As  early  as  November,  1915,  a  circular  of  instructions  by  the 
Ministry  of  Munitions  contained  recommendations  for  the  com- 
fort of  women  munition  workers.'  A  list  of  appropriate  occu- 
pations was  given.  Lavatory  and  cloakrooms  with  female  at- 
tendants should  be  provided  for  the  exclusive  use  of  females,  and 
they  should  be  supplied  with  aprons  and  caps,  to  t>e  washed  with- 
out  charge.  Later  Instructions  to  Investigating  Officers  urged 
that  it  was  "of  the  first  importance  that  the  conditions  under 
which  [women]  work  should  be  thoroughly  good."  Suitable  ap- 
pliances, such  as  lifting  tackle  for  particularly  heavy  work,  should 
be  provided  to  lessen  the  physical  strain.  The  Minister  of  Muni- 
tions was  prepared  to  give  "liberal  financial  help"  to  welfare  ar- 
rangements by  allowing  them  to  be  paid  for  out  of  what  would 
otherwise  be  taken  by  the  excess  profits  tax.' 


'  Great  Britain  Home  Office,  Retort  of  the  Chief  Inspector  of  Factories 
and  Workshops  for  H)i$.  pp.  14,  15. 

•  Great  Britain  Ministry  of  Munitions.  Circular  I.  6. 

•Under  this  head  were  included  (1)  cloakrooms  having  separate  pegs  and 
arrangements  for  drying  clothes,  (2)  wash  rooms  with  hot  and  cold  water, 
soap  and  towels,  (3)  sanitary  conveniences.  (4)  rest  and  first  aid  rooms, 
separated,  if  the  latter  were  used  hy  men.  (5)  chairs  or  stools,  (6)  caps  and 
aprons. 


130 


r.coNoMic  EPrEcra  or  th»  war 


The  Health  of  Munition  \VorWer»  Committee  laid  great  atreu 
on  provi»i(jn»  for  wfety.  health,  and  comfort,  u  well  at  on  the 
limitation  of  hours.    Of  female  workers  the  committet  said  in 
January,  1916,  "The  effect  upon  the  health  and  energy  of  women 
and  girls  which  results  from  clean,  bright  and  airy  workrooma, 
well  warmed  in  winter  can  hardly  l)e  exaggerated.    The  factory 
act  secures  a  minimum  of  these  essential  things,  but  the  highest 
sundard  attained  in  the  best  factories  is  not  too  high.     .     .     . 
The  provision  of  washing  accommodations    ...    has  become 
increasingly  imiH»rtant     .     .     .     cloaknxmis  should  also  be  pro- 
vided.    .     .     .    The  provision  of  adequate  and  suiuUe  sanitary 
accommodations  is  a  matter  of  special  importance."*     At  that 
time  it  was  the  judgment  of  the  committee  that  "if  the  present 
long  hours,  the  lack  of  helpful  and  .sym|»thetic  oversight,  the  in- 
ability to  obtain  good,  wholesome  food,  and  the  great  difficulties 
of  traveling  are  allowed  to  continue,  it  will  be  impracticable  to 
secure  or  maintain  for  an  extended  period  the  high  maximum  out- 
put of  which  women  are  undoubtedly  capable."    The  committee 
attached  high  value  to  "canteens"  or  factory  restaurants,  remark- 
ing that  "the  munition  worker,  like  the  soldier,  requires  good 
rations  to  enable  him  to  do  good  work."    Three  of  their  memo- 
randa dealt  with  the  subject,  and  gave  complete  directions  for 
setting  up  and  equipping  a  canteen,  with  model  bills  of  fare. 
Other  memoranda  covered  "welfare  supervision,"  which  will  be 
discussed  in  the  latter  part  of  this  section,  and  "washing  facili- 
ties and  baths." 

In  Januaty.  1916,  also,  the  munitions  amendment  act  gave  the 
Ministry  of  Munitions  mo-  definite  control  over  the  introduc- 
tion of  these  provisions,  such  a.s  it  had  over  working  hours.  The 
Ministr>-  was  empowered  to  regulate  working  conditions  for 
females  in  establishments  where  the  leaving  certificate  system  was 
in  force.  In  matters  already  regvilated  by  the  factory  acts  the 
concurrence  of  the  Secretary  of  State  was  required. 

Coincident  w  ith  its  enlarged  powers  and  with  the  recommenda- 

« Great  Britain  Ministry  of  Nfunition*.  Health  of  Munition  Workers  Com- 
mittee, .l/i-Hi'Taiidiiwi  Xo.  -t.  "Employment  of  Women."  p.  7. 


WOUBN  AND  CilltOKEN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


131 


tions  uf  the  Hctlth  of  Munition*  Workers  Committee,  the  Min- 
istry started,  in  January,  1916,  an  extrn!>ive  "welfare  depart- 
ment," as  part  of  the  labor  regulation  iiectiuii.  Its  director 
wai  Mr.  B.  Seebohm  Rowntree,  a  manufacturer  veil  known  for 
his  social  studies  and  for  the  de\'elopmcnt  of  welfare  schemes 
in  his  own  establishment.  The  aim  of  the  department  was  u> 
"raise  the  well  lieini;"  of  women  and  child  nuinition  worker*  to 
as  high  a  point  as  possible  in  all  factories  in  which  the  Ministry 
had  power  to  regulate  working  conditions.'  Numerous  special- 
ists were  attached  to  the  dqiartment.  such  as  physicians  for  work 
on  the  prevention  of  industrial  i»oisoninRs,  and  "welfare  ofticers" 
to  visit  the  factories.  After  their  inspections  these  officials  made 
recommenclatiiwis  for  changes,  which  the  department  then  urged 
on  the  firms.  It  was  said  that  it  seldom  proved  necessary  to  use 
the  legal  powers.  The  department  worked  in  close  co<iperation 
with  the  Home  Office,  which  was  in  charge  of  factory  inspection 

Some  of  the  principal  factors  in  working  conditions  to  which 
the  department  was  directed  to  give  attention  were  clean  work- 
rooms, the  suitability  of  occupation  to  individual  workers,  fac- 
tory "canteens,"  proper  hours  and  rest  periods,  wages,  and  the 
prevention  of  dangers  to  health  and  safety.  The  department's 
standard  for  hours  was  a  working  period  which  "conserved 
strength,  gave  a  chance  for  rest  and  recreation."  and  was  not 
longer  than  those  recommended  by  the  Health  of  Munition 
Workers  Committee.  W.iges  must  be  sufficient  to  cover  "physical 
needs  and  reasonable  recreation."  "Amenities."  washing  ac- 
commodations and  cloakrooms,  for  instance,  should  also  be  pro- 
vided, "such  as  men  and  women  coming  from  decent  homes  mav 
reasonably  demand."  The  department  was  to  "enquire"  into 
all  these  matters,  but  not  necessarily  to  deal  with  them  all  directly. 
For  instance,  the  interdepartmental  hours  committee  was  the  final 
authority  on  cases  of  reduction  of  hours. 

In  industry  outside  munitions  work  the  growing  importance 
ascribed  to  "welfare"  provisions  was  reflected  a  few  months  later 

•John  and  Katherine  Barrett  British  Itulustrial  Expcrifnc-  durinq  the 
War.  Sen.  Doc.  114.  65th  Cong..  1st  Sess. 


132 


ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 


in  a  part  of  the  "Police,  Factories,  etc.  (Miscellaneous  Provisions) 
Act"  of  August  3,  1916.'  The  Home  Secretary  was  empowered 
by  this  measure  to  issue  special  orders  "for  securing  the  welfare 
of  the  workers"  when  the  nature  of  the  work  or  "special  circum- 
stances" made  it  advisable.  Such  orders  might  cover  e»*her  a 
single  establishment  or  a  special  class,  all  the  workers  he  es- 
tablishments in  question  or  merely  some  special  class.  Tne  wel- 
fare provisions  might  be  compulsory  only  when  applied  for  by 
some  specified  proportion  of  the  workers.  Such  improvements 
in  working  conditions  above  the  ordinary  statutory  requirements 
might  include  "arrangements  for  preparing  or  heating  and  tak- 
ing meals;  the  supply  of  drinking  water;  the  supjrfy  of  protective 
clothing;  ambulance  and  first-aid  arrangements;  the  supply  and 
use  of  seats  in  workrooms;  facilities  for  washing;  accommoda- 
tions for  clothing;  arrangements  for  supervision  of  workers." 

In  one  re^wct,  however,  labor  leaders  believed  that  the  bill 
contained  a  backward  step.  It  permitted  deductions  from  wages 
to  pay  for  the  additional  benefits,  though  during  its  passage 
through  Parliament  the  labor  members  secured  considerable 
safeguards  of  this  power.  Contributions  could  be  used  only  to 
pay  for  benefits  "which,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Secretary  of  State, 
could  not  reasonably  be  required  to  be  provided  by  the  employer 
alone,  and  if  two-thirds  of  the  workers  affected  .  .  .  as- 
sent." Aside  from  the  dangers  of  abuse  under  this  provision  the 
measure  seems  to  provide  a  method  for  securing  decided  im- 
provements in  working  conditions  and  for  arrangements  better 
suited  to  the  varying  needs  of  different  industries  than  is  pos- 
sible under  general  statutt-s. 

In  1916  and  1917  also  Jteps  were  taken  to  minimize  the  two 
worst  risks  of  occupational  disease  which  menaced  the  woman 
munition  worker.  She  was  liable  to  contract  toxic  jaundice  from 
the  "dope"  (tetrachlorethane)  used  in  varnishing  the  wings  of 
airplanes  and  from  "T.  X.  T."  (trinitrotoluene),  an  explosive 
with  which  many  women  were  filling  shells.  In  the  year  1916, 1 12 
cases  of  toxic  jaundice  among  female  workers  and  thirty-one 

"iTand  7  Geo.  5,  1916,  ch.  31. 


m 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  CREAT  BRITAIN 


133 


deaths  were  reported  to  the  Home  Office.  Up  to  the  summer  of 
1916  the  majority  of  the  cases  seem  to  have  been  caused  by  "dope 
poisoning."  On  August  8  of  that  year  a  representative  of  the 
War  Office  and  Admiralty  stated  that  several  satisfactory  non- 
poisonous  "dopes"'  had  been  discovered  and  that  contractors 
were  no  longer  to  be  allowed  to  use  tetrachlorethane  if  the  sub- 
stitutes could  be  obtained.  At  the  beginning  of  1917  Dr.  T.  M. 
Legge,  the  chief  medical  inspector  of  factories,  and  Sir  Thomas 
Oliver,  the  well  known  expert  on  occupational  disease,  Iwth 
stated  that  poisonous  dopes  were  no  longei  in  use  for  government 
work  in  Great  Britain. 

Workers  on  "T.  N.  T."  sometimes  contract  an  annoying  eczema 
as  well  as  the  more  dangerous  toxic  jaundice,  and  it  is  feared 
that  the  substance  renders  some  women  permanently  sterile.' 
It  is  particularly  unfortunate  that  the  task  of  filling  shells  with 
"T.  X.  T."  is  so  light  and  easy  as  almost  always  to  be  given  to 
women,  if  it  is  true,  as  alleged,  that  "men  and  boys  seem  com- 
paratively unsusceptible  to  the  poison.'"  Even  when  they  are 
not  sickened  by  the  poison,  the  hair  and  skin  of  workers  handling 
"T.  N.  T."  often  turn  bright  yellow-.  For  this  reason  workers 
on  the  substance  have  received  the  nickname  of  "canaries.'' 

Instructions  for  the  prevention  of  "T.  N.  T. "  poisoning 
were  issued  by  the  Ministry  on  February  19,  1917.  They 
were  designed  to  prevent  the  absorpti(jn  of  the  poison 
through  the  skin,  which  was  believed  to  be  the  princij>al  means 
of  infection.  Working  "costumes,"  to  be  washed  at  least  weekly, 
and  washing  accommodations  were  to  be  provided,  and  each 
worker  was  to  receive  free  daily  a  pitjt  of  milk.  .After  a  fort- 
night of  work  on  "T.  N.  T."  processes  at  least  a  fortnight  on 
other  work  was  to  be  given,  and  a  weekly  medical  examination 
was  compulsory,  with  removal  of  any  workers  found  affected. 
A  special  person  was  to  be  apf)ointed  in  each  work  place  to  see 
that  the  rules  were  carried  out.  In  October,  1917,  tio  figures 
had  yet  been  published  which  would  determine  the  effectiveness 

'  The  New  Statesman,  February  3.  1917,  pp.  415-416. 


134 


ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 


of  these  provisions.  No  regulations  were  reported  at  that  time 
(Ml  the  use  of  cordite  in  shell  filling,  which  was  said  to  have 
caused  several  cases  of  suffocation  among  women  workers. 

How  far  the  various  rules  and  recommendations  actually  re- 
sulted in  better  working  conditions  is  an  interesting  question. 
Ai^rently  considerable  gains  were  made,  though  further  ad- 
vances were  still  practicable.  In  the  munitions  industry,  for  in- 
stance, national  factories  are  said  to  have  "naturally  adopted 
welfare  in  all  its  phases,"'  while  the  arrangement  that  improve- 
ments could  be  made  out  of  what  would  otherwise  be  taken  as 
excess  profits  tax  was  a  strong  inducement  to  action  by  "con- 
trolled" establishments.  But  in  the  early  months  of  1916  soon 
after  its  formation  the  welfare  department  of  the  Ministry  of 
Mimitions  undertook,  in  cooperation  with  the  factory  in^)ectors, 
'  turvey  of  "controlled"  and  "national"  munitions  plants  to  see 

,  h  ones  most  needed  its  attenticm.  At  that  time,  out  of 
;  '>lants  covered,  31  per  cent  graded  "A,"  49  per  cent  "B," 

a  i:.    oercent  "C." 

X  is  well  to  grasp  the  point  that  B  and  C  conditions  meant 
in  varj'ing  combinations  partial  or  complete  lack  of  mess- 
room  accommodation  or  facilities  for  cooking  food;  inade- 
quate or  non-existent  cloakrooms  and  washing  appliances 
even  for  dusty  and  greasy  occupations;  lack  of  supply  of 
seats;  need  of  first  aid  and  rest  rooms;  supervision  even  of 
numerous  young  girls  by  men  only,  and  other  defects  in 
factories  mostly  working  twelve-hour  shifts,  and  reached 
often  by  considerable  journeys  from  the  workers'  homes.' 

Allowance  must  be  made,  however,  for  "great  progress"  dur- 
ing the  year.  "Undoubtedly  a  number  of  the  factories  classed 
B  .  .  .  have  qualified  for  class  A,  and  to  a  lesser  extent  this 
is  true  of  class  C."'  In  a  similar  vein  the  Women's  Industrial 
News  said  in  April,  1916,  that  the  standard  of  comfort  advocated 


•  John  and  Katherine  Barrett.  British  Industrial  Experience  during  the 
War,  Sen.  Doc.  114.  6Sth  Cong..  1st  Ses5. 

'Great  Britain  Home  Office.  Report  of  the  Chief  Inspector  of  Factories 
and  Workshops  for  igi6,  p.  9. 

» Ibid. 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


135 


by  the  Health  of  Munition  Workers  Committee  for  rest  rooms, 
cloakrooms,  and  canteens  was  "rare"  but  that  "it  was  possible 
to  hope  for  a  gradual  improvement  in  conditions."  In  Jtme, 
1917,  Dr.  Addison,  then  Minister  of  Munitions,  reported  can- 
teen accommodations  in  national  and  controlled  establishments 
for  about  810,000  workers,  there  being  a  total  of  some  1,750,- 
000  persons  employed.  In  October  the  Health  of  Munition 
Workers  Committee  stated  that  canteen  accommodativ^ns  had 
been  provided  for  920,000  or  45  per  cent  of  all  munition  makers. 

To  be  sure,  women  workers  have  had  not  a  few  grievances 
about  the  canteens.  A  delegation  of  organized  women  workers 
called  on  government  officials  in  December,  1916,  to  protest 
against  the  poor  food  and  the  "rough  and  ready  manner"  in 
which  it  was  served.'  One  canteen  was  described  as  so  third-rate 
that  any  bloomin'  good  pull-up  for  carmen  is  a  regular  Hotel 
Cecil  to  it."  But  the  numerous  canteens  run  by  one  of  the  re- 
ligious organizations  for  women  were  highly  praised  by  the 
workers  themselves. 

The  Dilution  Bulletins  give  some  interesting  and  significant  re- 
sults secured  in  munitions  work  through  betterments  in  working 
conditions.  In  one  factory  it  was  estimated  that  2.500  hours' 
work  weekly  was  saved  by  prompt  attention  to  slight  accidents 
and  illness.  Another  firm  declared  that  free  meals  more  than 
repaid  in  increased  output.  In  another,  output  improved  after 
good  washrooms  and  cloakrooms  were  put  in.  Seats  with  backs 
increased  production  10  per  cent  in  one  case. 

In  non-munitions  industries  there  was  some  grumbling  at  al- 
leged delay  by  the  Home  Office  in  taking  advantage  of  the  "Police 
Factories  (Miscellaneous  Provisions)  Act."  But  after  all,  the 
act  was  not  passed  until  August,  1916,  and  before  the  end  of  the 
year  formal  conferences  on  future  welfare  requirements  had 
been  held  in  the  pottery  and  tin  plate  industries,  and  changes  in 
the  latter  begun  in  advance  of  an  order.  Without  use  of  the  act, 
the  factory  inspectors  reported  "great  progress"  in  1916  in  im- 
proving conditions  in  a  most  varied  group  of  industries:  sugar 


>  The  Woman  Worker.  January.  1917.  p.  M. 


136 


ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 


refineries,  confectionery,  breweries,  oil-seed  crushing,  rope  works, 
paper  mills,  woodworking,  cloth  and  webbing  making  and  to- 
bacco. Advances  in  these  trades  were  believed  to  have  bei  i 
greatly  assisted  by  the  publicity  given  "welfare"  in  the  munitions 
industry. 

The  first  order  under  the  act  went  into  effect  on  October  1, 
1917.  It  required  a  supply  of  pure  drinking  water  and  drinking 
cups  in  all  factories  employing  more  than  twenty-five  persons. 
A  second  order  was  issued  in  October,  to  go  into  effect  December 
1,  1917.  It  applied  only  to  blast  furnaces,  copper  and  iron  mills, 
foundries,  and  metal  works.  In  all  such  establishments  having 
more  than  500  employes,  an  "ambulance  room"  in  charge  of  a 
trained  nurse  must  be  provided,  and  the  provision  of  "first  aid" 
outfits  was  made  compulsorj-  wherever  twenty-five  or  more  per- 
sons were  employed. 


Welfare  Supenision 

In  the  improvement  of  working  conditions  of  women  dur- 
ing the  war  much  stress  has  been  laid  on  what  is  known  in 
England  as  "welfare  supervision." 

The  chief  duties  of  "welfare  supervisors"  within  the  factories 
as  outlined  by  Mr.  Rowntree,  the  head  of  the  welfare  depart- 
ment,' and  by  an  official  circular  of  the  Ministry  of  Munitions 
included  the  following:  The  supervisors  should  hire  or  keep  in 
touch  with  the  hiring  of  new  workers  and  the  choosing  of  fore- 
men, and  investigate  dismissals,  resignations,  cases  of  sickness 
and  lost  time,  and  of  poor  output  caused  by  ill  health.  They 
should  have  a  general  supervision  over  working  conditions,  espe- 
cially over  night  work,  and  over  canteens  and  rest  rooms  and 
should  cooperate  with  the  plant  doctor  and  nurse.  They  should 
keep  watch  of  the  wages  received,  should  investigate  complaints 
by  the  workers  and  help  in  the  maintenance  of  discipline.  No 
woman's  case  should  be  brought  before  a  "Munitions  Tribunal" 
until  the  welfare  supervisor  had  been  consulted. 

'  John  and  Katherine  Barrett,  British  Industrial  Experience  during  the 
War,  Sen.  Doc.  114,  65th  Cong..  Ut  Sess. 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  137 

The  first  stq>s  in  this  direction  were  taken  by  the  Home  Office, 
in  its  early  permits  allowing  night  work,  which  were  made  de- 
pendent on  the  supervision  of  women  by  women. 

Under  the  Ministry  of  Munitions  the  idea  of  "welfare  super- 
vision" has  been  extensively  developed,  and  has,  in  fact,  become 
to  a  large  section  of  the  public  the  most  prominent  feature  of  the 
Ministry's  campaign  for  better  working  conditions.  The  Health 
of  Munition  Workers  Committee  devoted  one  of  its  first  memo- 
randa to  the  subject.*  The  committee  spoke  of  the  need,  as  an 
aid  in  obtaining  the  best  possible  output,  of  some  special  ma- 
chinery for  taking  up  grievances  and  matters  of  discipline  and 
personal  welfare: 

The  committee  desire  to  record  their  unanimous  conviction 
that  a  suitable  system  of  welfare  supervision  ...  is  es- 
sential in  munition  works  where  women  and  girls  are  em- 
ployed, and,  they  must  add,  urgently  necessary. 

The  welfare  department  also  emphasized  the  importance  of 
"welfare  supervision,"  and  one  of  its  chief  functions  came  to  be 
the  introduction  of  "welfare  supervisors"  or  "lady  superintend- 
ents" into  munition  plants.  Such  officials  were  appointed  in  all 
national  factories.  The  departments  encouraged  the  establish- 
ment of  the  numerous  training  courses  which  have  been  opened, 
and  formed  a  "board  of  qualified  women"  to  interview  applicants 
and  to  recommend  to  employers  those  found  suitable.- 

It  was  advised  that  the  "welfare  supervisor"  be  "a  woman  of 
good  standing  and  education,  of  experience  and  sympathy,  and 
having,  if  not  an  actual  experience,  at  least  a  good  understanding 
of  industrial  conditions."  Experience  as  a  teacher  or  forewoman 
was  valuable.  The  worker  was  to  be  selected  and  paid  by  the 
employer — in  government  factories  by  the  Ministry  of  Muni- 
tions— and  "her  duty  was  to  the  firm."  Her  success  would  be 
found  to  be  dependent  on  her  employer's  rec<^;nition  of  her  im- 


•  Memorandum  No.  2,  "Welfare  Supervision,"  1915. 

'B.  Seebohm  Rowiitree,  "The  Value  of  Welfare  Supervision  to  the  Em- 
ployer," S'ssttm  (Eng.  ed.),  June,  1916. 


138 


ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 


portance  and  her  own  personality.  It  has  proved  difficult  to  find 
a  sufficient  number  of  women  with  suitable  qualifications,  and 
some  attempts  at  welfare  supervision  are  said  to  have  been  "futile 
and  misdirected"  because  of  a  poor  choice  of  supervisor.  Par- 
ticularly where  untrained  relatives  of  members  of  the  firm  were 
employed,  there  was  danger  of  undue  interference  with  the  per- 
sonal affairs  of  the  employes. 

The  justification  of  "welfare  supervision,"  according  to  the 
<^cial  point  of  view,  lay  in  an  in  Teased  output.  A  supervisor 
could  look  out  for  details  for  which  the  management  had  no 
time,  but  which  insured  good  conditions  for  its  women  employes. 
"Working  on  this  line,  lady  superintendents  perform  a  most 
useful  service,  relieve  the  management  of  a  large  mass  of  diffi- 
cult detail ;  and  increase  the  firms'  output  by  promoting  the  health, 
efficiency,  and  happiness  of  the  workers."  The  factory  inspectors 
described  a  plant  where  discipline  was  unsatisfactory,  the  factory 
acts  violated,  and  women  night  workers  were  not  provided  with 
meals  or  super\'ised  by  women.  At  the  end  of  five  months  of 
welfare  supervision  it  was  "improved  almost  beyond  recognition. 
Irregularities  had  disappeared;  a  good  mess  room  and  excellent 
kitchen  and  an  ambulance  room  had  been  built ;  satisfactory  first- 
aid  outfit  provided." 


Attack  on  tlte  Welfare  Movement 

Nevertheless  the  whole  program  of  "welfare  work"  and  espe- 
cially "welfare  supervision"  was  the  subject  of  fierce  criticism 
from  the  labor  movement  and  radicals  in  general.  The  feminist 
Rebecca  West  even  went  so  far  as  to  say  of  it  that  "to  women 
the  capitalist  can  do  with  impunity  all  the  things  he  no  longer 
dares  do  to  men."'  Mary  Macarthur,  the  secretary  of  the  Na- 
tional Federation  of  Women  Workers,  described  "welfare"  as 
"the  most  unpopular  word  in  the  terminology  of  the  factory 
worker." 

The  aim  of  increased  outpu*  was  attacked.    The  betterment 


»  Rebecca  West,  "Mothering  the  Munition  Maker."  The  New  Republic,  Oct., 
13,  1917,  p.  300. 


WOMEN   AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


139 


of  industrial  conditions  should  be  directed  toward  "improved 
health,  comfort,  and  development"  for  the  workers  as  ends  in 
themselves,  instead  of  regarding^  the  worker  as  a  means  of  greater 
production. 

But  in  most  cases  a  distinction  was  made  between  "structural 
improvements"  and  better  hours  and  wages  on  one  side  ami 
"welfare  supervision"  on  the  oth«r.  The  former  were  considered 
"desirable  and  even  imi)eratively  needed."  though  it  was  not  best 
that  they  be  gained  through  any  "welfare  movement."  "Struc- 
tural improvements"  should  result  from  factory  legislation  and 
the  action  of  factory  inspectors ;  wages  and  hours  should  be  fixed 
by  collective  bargaining  between  employers  and  trade  unionists. 
But  there  were  fe>v  kind  words  for  "welfare  supervision."  The 
ideal  of  the  "welfare  supervisor"  was  "docile,  obedient,  and  ma- 
chine-like" women  workers.  "The  good  welfare  worker  was  the 
most  dangerous"  because  she  was  most  likely  to  be  successful  in 
reducing  independence  and  turning  the  workers  from  trade  union- 
ism. As  long  as  she  was  responsible  to  the  employer,  she  mii,t.t 
be  obliged  to  use  her  position  only  to  become  "a  more  efficient 
kind  of  slave  driver."  Her  duties,  a.s  officially  outlined,  were  '  a:i 
indiscriminate  medley,"  much  of  which  involved  an  interference 
with  the  private  and  personal  affairs  of  the  workers.  Other  at- 
tacks were  more  moderate  and  recognized  that  much  depended 
on  the  personality  of  the  supervisor : 

While  some  supeivisors  in  the  future — like  some  fore 
women  in  the  past — will  do  much  to  safeguard  and  iinprov  e 
our  girls'  working  lives,  others  will  begin  their  career  full 
of  queer  notions  as  to  "discipline"  and  o])enwork  stockings. 
and  firmly  persuaded,  till  experience  teaches  them  lietter. 
that  Trade  L'nionism  is  of  the  devil.' 


Others,  while  seeing  dangers  in  "welfare  supervision"  as  a  per- 
manent policy,  felt  that  it  might  be  of  value  under  the  emergency 
conditions  of  the  war. 


»  Women's  Trade  Union  Revicti;  Jan.,  1917,  p.  12. 


140  ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 

The  help  in  need  of  the  welfare  officer  can  not,  perhi^w, 
be  too  far  extended  ...  in  order  to  meet  the  predica- 
ment of  scores  of  thousands  of  inexperienced  wcmien  and 
young  people  drawn  into  mushroom  munition  factories  from 
every  kind  of  home  and  employment,  working  day  and  night 
(until  the  limit  of  human  endurance  perhaps),  stranger  to 
the  town  and  countryside.  To  the  efforts  of  the  ivelfare 
officer  the  workers  owe,  indeed,  not  a  little  of  the  improved 
conditions  and  comfort  enjoyed  in  many  national  and  other 
model  munition  factories.' 

As  a  substitute  for  the  "welfare  supervisor"  the  radicals 
brought  forward  plans  for  "workshop  committees."  A  "joint 
committee  on  industrial  women's  organizations"  conferring  on 
the  "reconstruction  of  factory  life"  in  the  spring  of  1917, 
passed  a  resolution  that  "all  the  concerns  of  the  worker"  should 
be  cared  for  in  each  shop  by  a  trade  union  committee.  Schemes 
of  this  sort  were  indeed  occasionally  in  successful  operation.  The 
factory  inspector's  report  for  1916  described  the  "workers  wel- 
fare committee"  of  one  large  factory,  made  up  of  thirteen  per- 
sons, one  representing  the  management,  who  were  elected  at  a 
general  meeting  of  the  employes.  The  workers  agreed  to  a  de- 
duction of  a  little  more  than  1  per  cent  of  their  wages,  which 
gave  th'e  committee  an  income  of  over  £50  (about  $240)  weekly. 
With  this  fund  help  was  given  local  hospitals  and  convalescent 
homes  which  were  used  by  the  employes,  war  relief  funds,  and 
cases  of  distress  among  the  force.  Daily  newspapers  were  pro- 
vided in  the  canteen  and  "concerts  twice  a  week  at  dinner  time. 
'Whatever  we  want  we  can  have,'  said  a  member  of  the  commit- 
tee." Such  a  compromise,  it  would  seem,  could  preserve  the  bene- 
fits of  "welfare  supervision,"  while  satisfying  the  workers  and 
giving  them  valuable  experience  in  administrative  woric. 


Improvements  in  Conditions  >tUside  the  Factory 

The  activity  of  the  Ministry  of  Munitions  did  not  halt  at  the 
factory  gates,  but  extended  outside  into  matters  of  housing, 

>  fVomen's  Industrial  News,  April,  1917,  p.  19. 


WOMEN  AND  CHII.DRP.N   IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


141 


transit,  provision  of  recreation,  and  the  care  of  sickness,  on  the 
ground  that  the  abnormal  conditions  of  the  new  munition  centers 
affected  the  efficiency  of  the  workers.  Mr.  H.  W.  Garrod  of 
the  Ministry  of  Munitions  believes  that  perhaps  the  most  difficult 
problems  it  encountered  in  connection  with  women  workers  arose 
concerning  the  welfare  of  the  women  who  were  moved  away 
from  home  to  work  at  a  distance  at  the  rate  of  5.000  a  month  or 
more. 

Work  of  this  nature  for  women  away  from  home  was  at  first 
in  the  hands  of  the  "local  advisory  committees  on  women'* 
war  employment."  The  official  conception  of  the  duties  of 
"welfare  supervisors"  also  included  attention  to  such  items.  In 
January,  1917.  the  Health  of  Munition  Workers  Committee 
brought  out  a  memorandum  on  "Health  and  Welfare  of  Muni- 
tion Workers  outside  the  Factory."     In  this  it  statetl : 

The  necessity  in  the  present  emergency  of  transferring 
workers  from  their  homes  to  distant  places  where  their  lalx>r 
is  required  has  created  an  unparalleled  situation,  and  prob- 
lems of  the  first  importance  to  the  nation  are  arising  sii^'il- 
taneously  in  munition  areas  in  various  parts  of  the  kingdom, 
especially  as  reganis  women  and  girls.  The  committee  are 
of  opinion  that  the  situation  calls  for  some  more  complete 
and  systematic  action  than  can  be  taken  locally  by  isolated 
bodies  of  persons,  however  public  spirited  and  sympathetic 
they  may  be.  ...  It  is,  therefore,  from  no  lack  ot  ap- 
preciation of  the  work  of  these  committees  that  the  Health 
of  Munition  Workers  Committee  must  express  the  opinion 
that  the  tit.ie  has  now  come  to  supplement  and  reinforce 
them  by  a  larger  degree  of  State  action  than  has  hitherto 
been  deemed  necessary. 

In  accordance  with  their  recommendation  the  welfare  depart- 
ment of  the  Ministry  of  Munitions  appointed  a  number  of  "out- 
side welfare  officers"  who  aided  the  committees  and  who  were 
held  responsible  for  the  successful  accomplishment  of  the  work. 
The  picture  of  transportation  difficulties  given  by  the  commit- 
tee forms  an  interesting  sidelight  on  conditions  in  and  ab.i't  the 
new  munition  centers: 


143  ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 

Health,  timekeeping,  temper,  and  output  all  luffer,  when 
to  the  day'i  work  is  added  the  discomfort  and  fatigue  of  a 
long  walk  to  and  fro  in  bad  weather  or  in  darkness,  or  a 
scramble  to  squeeze  into  a  crowded  railway  carnage,  tram, 
or  omnibus,  with  a  bng  journey  in  a  bad  atmosphere.  In 
the  darkness  of  early  morning  and  at  night,  when  no  lights 
are  allowed  to  be  shown  on  the  railway,  separate  compart- 
ments for  women  are  desiraMe,  and  no  traveling  without  a 
light  inside  the  carriage  should  be  allowed ;  in  some  places 
carriages  without  blinds  or  other  means  of  shading  the  win- 
dows are  used  for  the  convenience  of  work  people  of  both 
sexes.  Under  these  circumstances  artificial  light  can  not  be 
used  and  the  journey  is  made  crowded  together  in  total 
darkness.' 

In  the  more  crowded  centers  living  accommodations  were 
equally  overtaxed.  "The  sudden  influx  of  workers  in  several  dis- 
tricts has  so  overtaxed  the  housing  accommodation  that  houses 
intended  for  one  family  are  now  occupied  by  several."*  .And 
"beds  are  never  empty  and  rooms  are  never  aired,  for  in  a  badly 
crowded  district,  the  beds,  like  the  occupants,  are  organized  in  day 
and  night  shifts."'  High  charges  and  poor  service  added  to  the 
discomforts  of  the  overcrowding: 

bout  eighteen  months  ago  I  visited  a  Midland  town 
w'  *  the  girls,  although  they  were  earning  from  twenty- 
f  i-  fifty  shillings  instead  of  the  fifteen  to  eighteen  shil- 
'•■",&  which  was  their  weekly  wage  in  peace  time,  were  living 
.  .  conditions  more  unhealthy  and  uncomfortable  than  they 
had  ever  endured  before.  It  was  common  for  a  girl  on  the 
day  shift  to  go  back  to  a  bed  from  wjiich  a  worker  on  the 
night  shift  had  just  arisen.  Girls  on  a  twelve-hour  shift 
would  have  to  lodge  an  hour  and  a  half  from  the  factory, 
so  that  their  working  day  amounted  to  fifteen  hours.  To 
get  a  :oof  over  their  heads  they  would  have  to  put  up  with 
dirt,  bad  cooking,  rowdy  companions,  and  above  all  extor- 

_»  Great  Britain  Ministry  of  Munitions,  Hralth  of  Munition  Workers  Com- 
mittee, Memorandum  No.  17,  "Health  and  Welfare  of  Munition  Worker; 
Outside  the  Factory,"  1917. 

» Ihid.,  MemoriMdum  No.  j,  "Welfare  Supervision,"  p.  3. 

'  Ibid.,  ifemtyre»dttm  No.  4,  "Employment  of  Women,"  p.  5. 


WOMEN  AND  CHILOUN  IN  CKBAT  BKITAIN 


143 


tioiwte  charges;  the  poor  alto  can  cheat  the  poor,  1  have 
known  the  wives  of  foremen  earning  over  five  pounds  a 
week  to  charge  a  girl  fifteen  shillings  a  week  for  bed  and 
breakfast' 


The  housing  situation,  however,  was  taken  in  hand  by  the  Min- 
istry  of  Munitions  un  an  extensive  scale.  It  is  claiitictl  that  in  the 
first  year  after  the  pa!<.<>age  of  the  munitions  act  accommodations 
for  60,000  people  were  provided,  and  that  "whole  villages  were 
built."'  In  some  ca^s  the  government  advanced  money  tu  local 
authorities  or  philanthropic  organizations  for  permanent  build- 
ings. In  other  instances  the  Ministry  itself  built  temporary  "hos- 
tels." It  also  put  up  "vast  numbers  of  small  wooden  cottages — 
known  aa  huts."  Existing  buildings  like  board  schools  were  fre- 
quently remodeled  for  use  as  hostels. 

Nevertheless,  re{M-esentatives  of  the  Ministr>-  of  Munitions  de- 
clared in  November,  1917,  that  on  the  whole  the  hostel  system, 
which  involved  large  ilormitorics  and  common  sitting  rooms,  was 
a  failure.  The  chief  objections  were  the  rules  and  regulations 
necessary  when  large  numbers  of  women  were  brought  together, 
and  the  difficulties  arising  if  even  one  woman  of  questionable 
character  got  into  a  dormitory.  For  these  reasons,  and  because 
the  hostels  lacked  privacy,  and  were  not  homelike,  they  generally 
were  not  particularly  popular  with  women  workers,  who  were 
said  to  prefer  lodgings  in  a  family  even  in  cases  where  "they  had 
to  pay  12s.  a  week  ($2.88 )  for  a  third  of  a  be<l."  Efforts  were 
made  by  welfare  workers  and  local  committees  to  supervise  and 
compile  lists  of  approved  lodgings,  but  the  problem  had  not  lieen 
entirely  solved  in  the  summer  of  1917.  Parliament  then  jassed 
a  measure  adapting  the  "billeting"  system  used  for  soldiers*  to 
the  needs  of  munition  workers,  but  in  November  nothing  couH 
be  learned  about  the  operation  of  this  law. 


>  Rehccca  West.  "Nfothcring  the  Munition  Maker."  Tlu-  .V.  ^'  Ri-hublir. 
October  6.  1917.  p.  257. 

•John  and  Katherine  Barrett,  British  Industrial  £.i:/i.-;iV«c,'  durimi  th,- 
War,  Sen.  Doc.  114,  6Sth  ConR.,  1st  Sess. 

»  A  number  of  soldiers  may  he  assigned  to  a  town,  and  householders  may 
be  required  to  furnish  tht-m  with  board  and  lodging  at  a  fixed  rate. 


144 


KLONOHIC  RrriCTS  OP  THK  W\R 


*>• 


i 


Other  iniemtinf  points  in  the  work  of  the  Minittry  of  Muni- 
tions for  "weltftrc"  among  women  ,«orkera  outside  the  factory 
included  pruvition  fur  recreation,  U  r  day  nursertea,  aitd  for  the 
litre  of  sickneM  and  maternity  caaes.  Cluba  were  formed,  and  en- 
tertaitnnctus  o  ganized.  At  Woolwich  Anenal  a  "recreation 
ground"  \\  as  provided.  Many  new  day  nurseries  were  opened  to 
guard  against  neglect  i*t  the  children  of  working  mothers.  The 
nurseries  were  generally  organized  by  the  "local  committees" 
but  were  aided  by  gran**  from  the  Mirnrtry. 

The  Health  of  Munition  Workers  Committee  called  attention  to 
the  need  of  better  provision  for  sickness,  and  advocated  the  build- 
ing of  cottage  hospitaU  in  Mmw  localities.  The  committee  also 
advised  the  formation  of  special  committees,  including  women 
doctors  and  marriixl  women,  to  make  arrangements  "without  un- 
due prominence"  for  maternity  cases,  which  in  some  centers  was 
not  a  small  problem.  Welfare  workers  were  frequently  embat 
rassed  in  dealing  with  such  women  whom  they  were  obliged  to 
discharge  at  an  early  !>tage  of  pregnancy  because  the  work  was 
heavy  or  involved  contact  with  explosives  or  poisons.  The  women 
were  dependent  on  their  wages  and  were  often  "unable  or  un- 
willing" to  return  home.  A  committee  cc  '  twjvide  a  "hostel" 
under  charitable  auspices  where  such  women  could  be  cared  for 
and  work  as  much  as  they  were  able,  and  could  arran.^e  for  their 
confinement  and  the  aftrr-care  of  their  babies. 

In  summing  up  the  effectiveness  of  the  new  v  elfare"  move- 
ment, it  is  of  course  mudi  easier  to  cite  laws  ard  recommenda- 
tions than  to  determine  the  extent  of  improved  conditions  from  a 
documentary  study,  such  as  the  present  one.  All  that  can  be 
safely  said  is  that  seemingly  a  pood  deal  has  bren  accomplished, 
hut  that  even  in  munition  plants,  where  the  "\\<  Hare"  idea  is  best 
developed,  probably  much  remains  to  be  done. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

Bffactf  of  tht  War  on  BmplojmMnt  of  Childrtn 

Extttuion  of  Employment 

TIjc  f  flfett*  of  the  v*ar  were  not  limited  to  a  gain  in  the  number 
of  adult  women  workers  alone,  but  led  also  to  a  large  increase 
tr  «he  number  of  younj;  boys  and  girU  at  work.  The  demands  of 
<i.ipoyers,  eci'nomic  nrcessities,  and  patriotic  m'jtivcs  undoubt- 
edly all  played  a  part  in  the  movement.  During  the  uncmploy ' 
nient  crisis  of  the  autumn  of  1914  it  was,  for  a  few  months, 
difficult  to  find  places  for  young  workers.  But  on  account  of  the 
acute  demand  for  labor  as  more  and  more  men  were  taken  into 
m'i.tary  service  a  strong  demand  for  boys  and  k'"1s  at  rising 
wages  soon  succeeded  the  depression.  As  was  th  •  case  with 
many  married  women,  the  ri-ing  cost  of  living  and  the  inade- 
quate separation  allowances  received  by  soldiers'  families  fre- 
quently made  it  an  economic  necessity  for  boys  and  girls  to  set* 
work  at  the  earliest  possible  opportunity.  Notably  <m  munitions 
work  patriotic  motives  proved  a  strong  incentive  to  attract  many 
young  jjcople.  Moreover,  the  natural  desire  of  not  a  few  children 
to  be  through  with  school  restraints  and  to  enter  adult  liii  was 
reinfi  -reed  by  the  excitement  of  war  time  and  by  the  taking  over 
of  nurJierous  schno!  huildings  for  military  purpo'.<»s. 

Yet  it  is  much  i  re  difficult  to  give  accurate  tigures  showing 
the  increased  empayiiu-nt  of  children  under  fourteen  and  "young 
person^  under  eighteen,  than  of  "females"  The  changes  are 
not  heralded  in  ifHcial  quarterly  reports,  Imi  can  l)e  gatl'ertd  only 
in  incomplete  form  fri.Tii  a  variety  of  source*.  Three  different 
cla  ses  of  employment  must  be  considered — that  which  would 
have  been  permitted  previous  to  the  war,  that  involving  the  relax- 
ation of  child  labor  and  compulsory  education  laws,  and  that 
V,  hich  remains  entirely  illegal.  In  all  three  classes,  the  war  has 
brought  an  increase  in  numbers. 


146 


ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 


Of  the  first  class,  boys  and  girls  legally  entitled  to  work  under 
ordinar}'  ciraimstances,  the  British  Board  of  Education  esti- 
mated that  in  1915  the  number  of  children  leaving  the  elementary 
schools  at  the  age  of  fourteen  or  thereabouts  was  increased  by 
about  10  per  cent,  or  45,000.  For  1916,  Mrs.  Sidney  Webb  put 
the  increase  in  the  number  leaving  in  this  way  at  50,000  to 
60,000.'  An  increase  in  the  employment  of  children  before  and 
after  school  and  in  the  number  of  child  street  traders  was  also 
noted.'  On  the  other  hand,  Mr.  Herbert  Fisher,  president  of 
the  Board  of  Education,  stated  in  the  House  of  Commons  in 
April,  1917,  that  with  the  greater  prosperity  of  the  working 
classes  since  the  war,  the  enrollment  in  secondary  schools  had 
increased.* 


Relaxation  of  Child  Labor  and  Compulsory  Education  Laws 

An  increase  nothing  short  of  appalling  ha«  taken  place  in  the 
number  of  working  children  between  eleven  and  fourteen  who. 
prior  to  the  war,  would  have  been  protected  by  child  labor  and 
compulsory  school  laws,  In  1911,  according  to  official  figures, 
only  148.000  children  of  these  ages  were  employed  in  all  Great 
Britain.  In  August,  1917,  Mr.  Fisher  said  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons that  "in  three  years  of  war  some  600,000  children  have 
been  withdrawn  prematurely  from  school  and  become  immersed 
in  industry.  They  are  working  on  munitions,  in  the  fields,  and 
in  the  mines."* 

Probably  nine-tenths  of  the  exemptions  were  for  agricultural 
work.  They  were  the  result  of  the  activity  of  the  farmers' 
associations,  which  had  always  opposed  compulsory  education  for 
the  children  of  their  farm  laborers  and  which  in  most  cases  con- 


Chad 


»Owfn  R.  Lovejoy,  "Safeguarding  Childhood  in  Peace  and  War,' 
Labor  BHiUlin,  May.  1917.  p.  74. 

*  London  Times,  Educational  Supplement,  March  15,  1917. 

» Children's  Bureau.  "Child  Labor  in  Warring  Countriei,"  Bureau  Publica- 
tion No.  i7.  1917.  p.  12.  Thanks  are  due  to  Miss  Julia  Lathrop,  chief  of  the 
Bureau,  and  to  Miss  Anna  Rochester  of  the  Bureau,  for  access  to  an  ad- 
vance copy  of  the  report. 

•  House  of  Commons,  Debates,  August  10.  1917,  p.  790. 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


147 


trolled  the  local  school  boards.'  Fanners  of  North  Wilts  recom- 
mended that  eleven-year-old  children  be  released  from  school  for 
work  for  which  women  "were  not  strong  enough." 

Though  probably  extra-legal,  the  exemptions  were  sanctioned 
under  specified  conditions,  in  a  circular  of  the  board  of  educa- 
tion to  local  authorities  issued  in  March,  1915.'  Children  of 
school  age  were  to  be  exempted  for  "light"  and  "suitable"  agri- 
cultural emplo>-ment  in  cases  of  special  emergency,  when  no 
other  labor  was  available.  There  was  to  be  no  general  relaxa- 
tion of  standards,  and  exemptions  were  to  be  made  in  individual 
cases  and  for  limited  periods  only. 

Even  before  the  publication  of  this  circular,  between  Septem- 
ber 1,  1914,  and  January  31,  1915,  1,413  children  under  fourteen, 
some  of  them  as  young  as  eleven  years,  were  released  from  school 
for  farm  work.  Between  February  1  and  April  30,  1915,  3,81 1 
children  were  exempted  for  this  purpose.  The  number  holding 
excuses  mi  January  31,  1916,  was  8,026;  on  May  31  was  15,753. 
and  on  October  31  was  14,915.  These  figures,  moreover,  showed 
only  the  number  of  children  formally  excused  by  special  exemjv 
tion,  not  tht  number  actually  at  work.  About  half  the  counties 
made  special  by-laws  lowering  the  standard  of  compulsory  at- 
tendance required  before  the  war.  In  Wiltshire,  for  instance,  all 
children  of  eleven  who  had  reached  the  fourth  standard  were 
not  required  to  attend  school,  and  only  those  below  that  grade 
who  were  specially  excused  appeared  in  the  official  lists.'  Then, 
too,  in  some  places  schools  were  closed  at  noon  or  altogether  at 
times  of  special  stress,  and  in  others  headmasters  were  directed 
to  let  children  of  eleven  and  over  leave  without  record  when 
needed  for  farm  work.* 

It  is  noteworthy  that  the  policy  of  granting  exemptions  was 
not  uniformly  followed  throughout  the  country,  since  some  local 
authorities  refused  to  relax  the  attendance  laws.     Twenty-five 

»  Labour  Year  Book,  1916,  pp.  88-8Q. 

»  Great  Britain  B->ard  of  Education.  Circular  898.  March  12,  1915. 

•United  States  Bu.;«r:  of  Labor  Statistics,  Monthly  Rninv.  June.  1917.  p. 

*  The  Woman  Worker.  May.  1916,  p.  3. 


148 


ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 


county  councils  reported  that  no  children  had  been  excused  be- 
tween February  1  and  April  30,  1915.  The  policy  of  exemption 
was  strongly  opposed  by  the  agricultural  laborers'  union,  and  by 
the  whole  labor  party  which  brought  the  matter  up  in  the  House 
of  Commons  in  the  spring  of  1915,  but  to  little  effect.  It  was 
charged  that  the  farmers  were  making  use  of  child  labor  in  order 
to  keep  down  wages,  and  that  the  supply  of  adult  labor  would  be 
sufficient  if  proper  wages  were  paid. 

The  Board  of  Agriculture  advocated  relieving  the  situation  by 
an  increased  use  of  women  instead  of  children.  "The  Board  of 
Agriculture  have  expressed  the  opinion  that  if  the  women  of  the 
country  districts  and  of  England  generally  took  the  part  they 
might  take  in  agriculture,  it  would  be  imnecessary  to  sacrifice 
the  children  under  twelve."* 

In  the  spring  of  1916  the  Board  of  Education  itself  admitted 
that  in  some  areas  exemptions  had  "been  granted  too  freely  and 
without  sufficiently  careful  ascertainment  that  the  conditions 
prescribed  by  the  government     .  .     were  ful- 

filled.'" A  circular  of  February  29,  1916,  laid  down  additional 
restrictions  on  excusing  children  from  school.*  Children  under 
twelve  should  "never"  be  excused  exempt  for  very  fhort  periods 
when  the  circumstances  were  "entirely  exceptional."  Persons 
wisliing  to  hire  school  children  should  be  required  to  specify  the 
work  for  which  they  were  needed  and  to  prove  that  the  need 
could  not  be  filled  in  any  other  way,  especially  by  employing 
women.  A  register  of  all  children  exempted  should  be  kept  and 
the  exemptions  reviewed  at  least  once  every  three  months.  The 
power  of  granting  exemptions  should  be  kept  in  the  hands  of  the 
central  committee  and  not  given  over  to  district  committees  or 
local  truant  officers,  which  policy,  it  had  been  found,  "involves 
great  divergency  in  practice  and  gives  rise  to  considerable  laxity 
of  administration." 


'  Great  Britain  Board  of  Education.  Retort  of  the  Chief  Medical  OMcer 
of  the  Board  of  Education  for  iQi;,  p.  106. 
'Ibid.,  p.  103. 
•  Ibid,  Circular  943,  February  29,  1916. 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


149 


An  interesting  clause  of  the  circular  "suggested  that  the 
urgency  of  the  need  for  the  labor  of  school  children  may,  to  a 
certain  extent,  be  tested  by  the  amount  of  wages  offered,  and  as 
a  general  rule  it  may  be  taken  that  if  the  labor  of  a  boy  of  school 
age  is  not  worth  at  least  s'.x  shillings  a  week  to  the  fanner,  the 
benefit  derived  from  the  boy's  employment  is  not  sufficient  to 
compensate  for  the  loss  involved  by  the  interruption  of  the  boy's 
education."  In  an  earlier  report  the  board  had  noted  that  only 
one  of  the  twenty  school  children  reported  engaged  in  farm  work 
by  one  county  was  receiving  as  much  as  6s.  ($1.44)  weekly.* 

However,  the  board  had  no  direct  power  over  the  local  authori- 
ties except  to  reduce  its  money  grants  when  the  nimAer  of  chil- 
dren in  attendance  decreased.  The  number  of  children  excused, 
according  to  the  statistics  just  quoted,  reached  its  highest  point 
in  May,  1916,  which  would  indicate  that  the  circular  had  little 
influence  with  local  officials  in  reducing  the  number  of  country 
children  deprived  of  schooling  to  work  cm  the  farms. 

In  1917  the  board  again  became  more  favorable  to  a  modifi- 
cation of  school  requirements.  On  February  2,  in  answer  to 
a  question  in  the  House  of  Commons,  the  president  of  the  board 
of  education  stated  that  "greater  elasticity"  was  to  be  allowed 
in  the  school  vacations,  so  that  boys  over  twelve  might  engage 
in  farm  work.  For  this  purpose  the  Board  of  Education  would 
give  money  grants  for  320  school  sessions  annually  instead  of 
400,  as  usual,  provided  vacation  classes  for  the  younger  children 
were  organized. 

Fewer  children  seem  to  have  been  released  from  school  for 
industry  or  miscellaneous  work  than  for  agriculture.  Between 
September,  1914,  and  February,  1915,  only  thirty-one  children 
were  officially  reported  excused  from  school  attendance  for  fac- 
tory work  and  147  for  miscellaneous  occupations.  None  of  these 
was  less  than  twelve  years  old.  On  account  of  the  small  num- 
bers excused  the  Board  of  Education  did  not  repeat  the  inquiry. 

Efforts  were  made,  indeed,  as  early  as  1915  to  secure  exemp- 

'  Great  Britain  Board  of  Education,  School  Attendance  and  Employment 
%n  Agriculture,  Returns  ttt  September,  1914,  to  31st  January,  tgis,  p.  3. 


I 


1 

i 


150 


ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 


tions  for  factory  work  similar  to  those  in  agriculture.  Employ- 
ers' associations  urged  that  children  of  twelve  and  thirteen  be 
excused  from  school.  The  cotton  spinners'  and  employers' 
associations  sent  a  joint  petition  to  the  Home  Secretary  asking 
that  children  be  allowed  to  begin  work  in  the  cotton  mills  at  thir- 
teen instead  of  fourteen  years.  The  spinners'  tmion  preferred 
such  a  lowering  of  child  labor  standards  to  allowing  women  to 
become  "piecers."  Certain  government  contractors  also  asked 
the  local  education  authorities  for  permission  to  employ  boys  of 
thirteen. 

But  at  the  time  the  official  attitude  was  much  less  encouraging 
in  regard  to  exemptions  for  factory  work  than  for  agriculture. 
The  Home  Office  refused  to  consent  to  any  relaxation  unless  the 
Admiralty  or  War  Office  certified  that  the  observance  of  child 
labor  laws  was  delaying  work  necessary  to  the  war.^  The  an- 
nual report  of  the  factory  inspectors  for  1915  mentioned  an  im- 
portant prosecution  for  illegal  child  labor.  The  board  of  edu- 
cation was  a  little  more  lenient,  allowing  the  local  authorities 
to  excuse  boys  of  thirteen  under  certain  prescribed  conditions, 
which  included  the  restriction  that  the  work  must  be  within  the 
boys'  physical  capacity.'  But  during  at  least  the  earlier  months 
of  war  "generally  in  urban  areas,  the  information  furnished  ap- 
pears to  show  that  there  has  been  no  great  variation  from  the 
usual  practice  in  the  matter.  At  all  times  children  have  been 
granted  exemption  in  verj-  special  circumstances,  and  the  only 
effect  of  the  war  has  been  that  such  special  circumstances  have 
arisen  a  little  more  frequently  than  they  did  in  normal  times."' 
The  statement  of  Mr.  Fisher  in  August.  1917,  that  school  children 
were  working  in  mines  and  munition  factories  would  suggest, 
however,  that  these  comparatively  rigid  standards  were  not  main- 
tained in  the  later  months  of  the  war. 


'  Labour  Year  Book,  1916,  p.  89. 

'  Great  Britain  Board  of  Education.  Annual  Report  for  igr$  of  the  Chief 
Medical  OMcer  of  the  Board  of  Education,  p.  106. 

^  Ibid.,  Summary  of  Returns  supplied  by  Local  Education  Authorities  for 
the  period  of  September  i.  igi4,  to  January  31,  tgij,  p.  4. 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


151 


In  addition,  it  is  probable  that  there  has  been  more  than  the 
usual  amount  of  illegal  child  labor.  A  note  in  The  IVoman 
Worker  of  January,  1917,'  said  that  the  "attention  of  the  Secre- 
tary of  State  has  been  directed  to  the  prevalence  of  illegal  em- 
ployment, in  factories  ...  of  children  under  12  .  .  . 
and  children  who  have  not  obtained  exemption  from  school  at- 
tendance. .  .  .  It  is  not  countenanced  by  any  of  the  depart- 
ments concerned,  nor  can  it  be  justified  by  any  pretext  of  war 
emergency."  It  was  stated  that  official  action  against  these  con- 
ditions had  been  secured.  In  several  cases  penalties  had  already 
been  imposed.  "The  inspectors  of  factories  are  instructed  to 
take  rigorous  action  in  respect  of  any  similar  offences  in  future, 
and  without  further  warning." 

Changes  in  Occupations  of  Boys  and  Girls 

Certain  effects  of  the  war  on  boys'  work  were  noted  very  early 
By  the  end  of  1914  it  was  observed  that  in  factories  strong  boys, 
who  had  been  ^)prentices  or  helpers,  were  being  pushed  ahead 
to  the  work  of  skilled  men,  while  women  and  girls  were  taking 
their  places.  Such  "indirect"  substitution  continued  frequently 
to  be  the  first  change  made  wheii  women  were  introduced  into 
new  lines  of  work.'  The  Ministry  of  Munitions  made  some  effort 
to  keep  boys  away  from  shell  and  fuse  making  and  other  forms 
of  purely  repetitive  work,  and  to  encourage  them  to  take  up  lines 
which  would  make  them  skilled  artisans.'  But  on  the  whole  the 
number  of  boys  entering  skilled  trades  and  starting  apprentice- 
ships declined,  for  unskilled  work  at  high  wages  was  oflFered  bv 
munitions  plants  and  other  fo  s  of  war  equipment,  and  many 
parents,  under  the  unsettled  c  ditions  of  war,  were  unwilling 
to  have  their  sons  bind  themselves  for  a  term  of  years. 

Girls,  like  adult  women,  entered  many  new  lines  of  work  for 
the  first  time  during  the  war,  and  there  are  but  few  facts  to 

>P.  4. 

«  See  p.  108. 

»  Great  BriUin  Ministry  of  Munitions,  Dilution  of  Labour  BuU.-fm.  Febru- 
ary, 1916,  p.  2. 


i 

I 


152 


ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  TH>  WAR 


distinguish  between  the  two  groups  of  woricers.  The  girls  were 
used  in  boys'  places  for  running  errands,  on  wagons  and  other 
forms  of  delivery  work — which  had  been  much  complained  of 
as  a  "blind  alley"  for  boys— in  banks,  and  in  reuil  shops.  There 
appeared  to  be  a  greatly  increased  demand  for  them  in  some  cities 
in  clerical  work.  In  the  new  openings  on  munitions  work,  and 
other  forms  of  army  equipment  their  work  has  not  been  clearly 
marked  off  from  that  done  by  adult  women.  Complaints  were 
made  in  March,  1917,  that  it  was  difficult  to  induce  young  girls 
to  enter  anything  but  the  munitions  industry.*  The  glamor  and 
excitement  of  direct  assistance  to  the  war  undoubtedly  made  its 
strongest  appeal  to  girls  of  this  impressionable  age. 

A  feature  almost  unknown  previous  to  the  war  was  the  move- 
ment of  boys  and  girls  under  seventeen  years  of  age  from  their 
homes  to  work  at  a  distance.  The  Labour  Gasette  stated  of  the 
movement : 

It  has,  to  a  limited  extent,  been  found  desirable  to  draft 
boys  and  girls  from  areas  where  their  services  are  not  much 
in  demand  to  districts  where  there  is  a  scanty  supply  of 
labor  for  essential  industries  or  where  opportunities  for 
training  in  skilled  employments  are  available.  Where  such 
migration  has  been  carried  out  through  the  exchanges  spe- 
cial arrangements  have  been  made  to  secure  the  welfare  of 
the  boys  and  girls  in  their  new  sphere.' 

Supervision  of  the  boys  and  girls  thus  removed  from  home 
care  and  training,  naturally  a  most  serious  respcmsibility,  was 
carried  out  mainly  by  the  advisory  committees  on  juvenile  em- 
ployment, which  had  been  formed  in  connection  with  many  ex- 
changes before  the  war  for  the  vocati6nal  guidance  of  young 
woricers.  In  the  case  of  young  girls  the  woric  also  came  under 
the  duties  of  the  local  ccwnmittees  on  "women's  war  employ- 
ment." As  "welfare  supcrvisicm"  was  developed  by  the  Ministry 
of  MuniticMis,  the  supervisors,  and  later  the  "outside  welfare 
(rfRcers,"  were  likewise  instructed  to  give  attention  to  the  matter. 


^London  Times.  Educational  Supplement,  March  IS,  1917. 
•February,  1917,  p.  49. 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


153 


Wages 

According  to  information  from  labor  sources*  the  rise  in  wages 
during  the  war  was  perhaps  more  mariced  among  boys  and  girls 
under  eighteen  than  among  any  other  class  of  workers.  Boys 
and  girls  in  munitions  factories  in  certain  parts  of  the  country 
were  often  able  to  earn  from  £1  ($4.80)  to  £2  ($9.60)  a  week— 
the  latter  as  much  as  many  skilled  men  received  previous  to  the 
war. 

The  wages  fixed  by  the  Ministry  of  Munitions  for  girls  under 
eighteen  indicated  the  hig^  level  reached  in  boys'  and  girls' 
wages.  For  girls  under  sixteen  they  were  roughly  equivalent  to 
the  minimums  fixed  by  the  trade  boards  for  adult  women,  and 
were  somewhat  higher  for  girls  between  sixteen  and  eighteen. 
Following  the  increases  of  August,  1917,  the  standard  weekly 
time  rate  on  "men's  work"  was  19s.  6d.  ($4.68)  for  girls  under 
sixteen,  21s.  6d.  ($5.16)  for  girls  of  sixteen,  and  23s.  6d. 
($6.64)  for  those  of  seventeen.  On  piece  work  thirty  per  cent 
for  girls  under  sixteen,  twentj-  per  cent  at  sixteen,  and  ten  per 
cent  at  seventeen  was  deducted  from  the  rates  of  adult  women. 
On  work  "not  recognized  as  men's  work,"  rates  varied  from  4j4d. 
hourly  (9  cents)  for  girls  of  seventeen  to  about  2i/id.  (5  cents) 
for  tbose  under  fifteen. 

Hours 

.Mong  with  the  relaxation  of  hour  limitations  on  women's 
work,  the  similar  restrictions  on  "protected  persons"  under 
eighteen  were  modified.  The  result  of  the  relaxation  of  stan- 
dards was  described  by  the  Health  of  Munition  Workers  Com- 
mittee : 

The  wedcly  hours  have  frequently  been  extended  to  67, 
and  in  some  instances  even  longer  hours  have  been  worked. 
The  daily  hours  of  employment  have  been  extended  to  14, 
and  occasionally  even  to  IS  hours;  night  work  has  been 


>  The  Labour  Woman,  August  1916,  p.  44. 


i 


154 


ECONOMIC  KPFXCTS  OP  TBI  WAR 


common;  Sunday  work  hu  abo  been  allowed,  though  lat- 
terly it  has  been  largely  diKontinued.' 

VVoricing  hours  for  boys  under  eignteen  were  given  more  spe- 
cifically in  an  "inquiry  into  the  health  of  male  munition  workers," 
made  for  the  committee  between  February  and  August,  191& 
The  investigation  followed  the  same  lines  as  iu  companion  study 
on  the  health  of  female  workers,  including  an  exammation  of 
over  1,500  boys  under  eighteen  and  their  working  conditions.  It 
was  found  that  "large  numbers  of  boys,"  many  of  them  just  over 
fourteen,  were  "working  a  net  average  of  sixty-eight  and  one- 
half  hours  per  week."  In  some  cases  boys  under  fourteen  had 
a  forty-eight-hour  week,  "but  in  others  boys  of  eighteen  were 
found  to  be  working  an  average  of  over  d^>^-y  hours  per  wedc 
and  it  was  ascertained  that  they  had  worked  ninety  and  even  a 
hundred  hours  per  week.'"  It  is  not  surprising  that  the  investi- 
gator concluded  that  "hours  tend  to  be  too  long  for  the  proper 
preservation  of  health  and  eflSciency." 

In  most  cases  the  Home  Oflke  had  allowed  Sunday  work  only 
under  rather  strict  ccmditions.  "The  Home  Office,  as  a  rule, 
only  authorizes  Sunday  work  on  condition  that  each  boy  or  girl 
employed  on  Sunday  shall  be  given  a  day  in  the  same  week,  or 
as  part  of  a  system  of  8-hour  shifts  in  which  provision  is'made 
for  weekly  or  fortnightly  periods  of  rest.  Apart  from  this,  per- 
mission for  boys  over  16  to  be  emjdoyed  periodically  on  Sunday 
was  on  July  1  last  [1916]  only  allowed  in  seven  cases,  and  in 
throe  cases  for  boys  under  16.  In  only  one  instance  are  boys 
employed  everj'  Sunday,  but  this  is  limited  to  boys  over  16,  and 
the  total  weekly  hours  are  only  about  56.  Tn  only  one  case  are 
girls  employed  periodically  on  Sunday,  and  there  the  concession 
is  confined  to  girls  over  16."*  The  employment  of  girls  under 
16  at  night  had  been  pennitted  (m]y  "in  one  or  two  cases 

'Great  Bri'-°1  Ministry  of  Munitions,  Health  of  Munition  Workers  Com- 
mittee, A/eiK.        inm  No.  13,  "Juvenile  Employment,"  1916,  p.  4. 
»/&«.,  Int.        Report.  1917,  p.  103. 
» Ibid;  Mem.      .dum  No.  13,  "Juvenile  Employment,"  p.  S. 


WOIIIN  AND  CRILDMN  IN  GRKAT  BRITAIN 


155 


.  .  .  through  exceptional  circumstances."  In  March,  1916i 
it  was  stated  that  the  caws  were  "under  review  with  the  object 
of  arranging  for  the  discontinuance  of  such  employment  at  the 
earliest  possiUe  moment" 

The  recommendations  of  the  committee  called  for  a  consider- 
able improvement  in  these  standards.  "The  hours  prescribed 
by  the  factory  act  [sixty]  are  to  be  regarded  as  the  maximum 
ordinarily  justifiri>le,  and  even  exceed  materially  what  many  ex- 
perienced employers  regard  as  the  longest  period  for  which  boys 
and  girls  can  usefully  be  employed  from  the  point  of  view  of 
either  health  or  output."  Nevertheless,  "In  view  of  the  extent 
to  which  boys  are  employed  to  assist  adult  male  workers  and 
of  limitation  of  supply,  the  committee,  thou^  with  great  hesita- 
tion, recommend  that  boys  should  be  allowed  to  be  employed  on 
overtime  up  to  the  maximum  suggested  for  men,  but  every  effort 
should  be  made  not  to  work  boys  under  16  more  than  sixty  hours 
per  week.  Where  overtime  is  allowed  substantial  relief  should 
be  insisted  upon  at  the  wedc-ends,  and  should  be  so  arranged  aa 
to  permit  of  some  outdoor  recreation  on  Saturday  afternoon." 
But  for  girls  "similar  difficulties  did  not  often  arise,"  and  the 
committee  advised  weekly  hours  of  sixty  or  less  and  brought 
forward  the  claims  of  the  eight-hour,  three-shift  ^stem.  Under 
the  exceptional  circumstances  existing,  the  committee  believed 
that  overtime  might  be  continued  on  not  more  than  three  days 
a  week  for  both  boys  and  girls,  provided  the  specified  weekly  total 
of  hours  was  not  exceeded. 

The  absolute  discontinuance  of  Sunday  work  was  strongly 
advised.  "The  arguments  in  favor  of  a  weddy  period  of  rest 
.  .  .  apply  with  special  force  in  the  case  of  boys  and  girls ; 
they  are  less  fitted  to  resist  the  strain  of  unrelieved  toil,  and  are 
more  quickly  affected  by  monotcmy  of  work.  ...  It  is 
greatly  to  be  hoped  that  all  Sunday  work  will  shortly  be  com- 
pletely stopped." 

In  regard  to  night  work,  an  earlier  report  of  the  committee,' 

» Great  Britain  Ministry  of  Munitions,  Health  of  Munition  Workers  Com- 
mittee, Memorandum  No.  ».  "Hours  of  Work."  pp.  7-& 


I 


1S6 


RCONOUIC  BmCTS  OF  THE  WAR 


ptibluhcd  in  January,  1916,  held  that  girb  under  eirhteen  should 
not  be  employed  on  a  night  shift  "unkti  the  need  i*  urgent  and 
the  supply  of  women  workers  is  insufficieiu.  In  such  cases  the 
employment  should  be  restricted  to  girls  over  16  years  of  age, 
carefully  selected  for  the  work."  But  for  boys,  "It  does  not  seem 
practtcal  to  suggest  any  change  of  system,  but  the  committee  hope 
that  care  will  be  taken  to  watch  the  ei!ect  of  night  work  on  indi- 
vidual boys  and  to  limit  it  as  far  as  possible  to  those  over  16." 
In  the  striMequent  memorandum  on  "Juvenile  Empk>ymetit,"  the 
committee  "remained  of  the  opinion  that  girls  under  eighteen 
and  boys  under  sixteen  shoukl  only  be  employed  at  night  if  other 
labor  can  not  be  obtained.  Wherever  possible  it  should  be 
stoned." 

The  interdepartmental  committee  on  oours  of  labor,  organised 
late  in  1915,  which  based  its  action  on  the  recommendations  of 
the  Health  of  Munition  Workers  Committee,  was  instrumental 
in  securing  improved  regulations  for  protected  persons  in  muni- 
tion factories  as  well  as  for  women.  The  general  order  of  Sep- 
tember 9,  1916,  made  special  arrangements  for  boys  and  girls 
over  and  under  sixteen,  respectively.  Sunday  work  wa«  abolished 
for  each  of  these  classes  of  workers.  The  maximum  working 
week  for  girls  was  to  be  sixty  hours,  as  before  the  war.  But 
girls  between  sixteen  and  eighteen,  like  aduh  women,  might  work 
overtime  on  three  days  a  week,  provided  the  weekly  maximum 
was  not  exceeded.  Boys  over  sixteen  were  permitted  to  work  as 
much  as  sixty-five  hours  a  week,  on  three  days  a  week  as  long 
as  twelve  hours  and  a  quarter,  and  twelve  hours  on  other  week 
days.  Under  this  scheme  work  on  Saturday  must  stop  not  later 
than  2  p.m.  In  "cases  where  the  work  was  of  a  specially  urgent 
character,"  the  twelve-hour  day  and  sixty-five-hour  week,  but 
not  the  overtime,  might  be  worked  by  boys  of  fourteen.'     The 


*  Following  is  the  section  of  the  general  order  regulating  hours  for  bojrs 
under  eighteen : 

Scheme  D.   (Overtime  {or  Boys.) 

This  scheme  applies  to  male  young  persons  of  16  years  of  age  and  over 
provide*!  that  the  superintending  inspector  of  factories  shall  have  power  in 
cases  where  the  wortc  is  n{  a  specially  urgent  character  to  extend  the  appli- 
cation of  the  scheme  to  male  young  persons  bcmxcn  14  and  16  years  of  age. 


WOMKN  AWD  CHILDKIN  IN  ORKAT  BRITAIN 


157 


commhtee  had  almdy  forbidden  the  employment  of  gfirit  under 
sixteen  at  night.  The  prohibition  waa  extended  by  the  general 
order  to  bojrt  under  fourteen  and  girli  under  eighteen,  and  boyi 
under  sixteen  were  allowed  to  do  night  work  only  in  "unrent 
cases."  Long  as  these  hours  seem  according  to  American  stan- 
dards, they  undoubtedly  represented  a  considerable  reduction  from 
the  hours  worked  by  many  munition  plants  during  the  early 
months  of  the  war. 

Safety,  Health,  <md  Comfort 

The  action  of  the  Ministry  of  Munitions  looking  to  the  better- 
ment of  working  conditions  for  women  and  girl  munition  work- 
ers, and  the  "welfare"  movement  which  followed  in  other  indus- 
trial occupations  were  described  in  the  section  on  women  workers. 

The  Ministry  of  Munitions  urged  the  extension  of  "welfare 
supervision,"  on  which  it  laid  much  stress,  to  boys  as  well  at 
to  women  and  girls.  Sudi  action  was  among  the  recommenda- 
tions of  the  Health  of  Munition  Workers  Committee: 


In  the  past  the  need  for  the  welfare  supervision  of  boys  has 
not  been  so  widely  recognized  as  in  the  case  of  women  and 
girls;  present  conditions  have,  however,  served  to  call  atten- 
tion to  its  urgency  and  it  is  receiving  the  attention  of  an 
increasing  number  of  employers.  Boys  fresh  from  the  dis- 
cipline of  a  well-ordered  school  need  help  and  friendly 
supervision  in  the  unfamiliar  turmoil  of  their  new  sur- 


Such  youiif  persons  may  be  employed  overtime  on  week  days  other  than 
Saturday  subject  to  the  following  conditions: 

(1)  The  total  hours  worked  per  week  (exclusive  of  intervals  for  meals) 
shall  not  exceed  65. 

(2)  The  daily  period  of  employment  (including  overtime  and  intervals  for 
meals) 

(a)  Shall  not  commence  earlier  than  6  a.m.  or  end  later  than  10  p.m. 

(b)  Shall  not  exceed  M  hours. 

Provided  that  where  overtime  is  worked  on  not  more  than  3  days  in  the 
week  the  period  of  employment  may  in  the  case  of  boys  of  16  years  of  age 
and  over  be  15  hours. 

(3)  Intervals  for  meals  amounting  to  not  less  than  V/i  hours  shall  be 
allowed  daring  the  period  of  employment  with  an  additional  half  hour  if  the 
period  of  employment  is  more  than  13H  hours  or  an  additional  three-fourths 
of  an  hour  if  the  period  of  employment  is  IS  hours. 

(4)  On  Saturday  the  period  of  employment  shall  end  not  later  than  2  p.m. 


158 


BCONOMIC  VnCTS  Or  THE  WAR 


roaadmgs.  They  are  not  men  and  can  not  be  treated  a* 
•uch.  On  the  other  hand,  high  wages  and  the  abacnce  of 
the  father  have  frequently  tended  t'  relax  home  control. 
Long  hoars  of  work  pre\-ent  attendance  at  clubs;  healthy 
and  organized  recreation  is  seldom  available.  As  might  be 
anticipated  under  these  circumstances,  complaint  is  often 
made  of  boys  leaving  thctr  work  after  a  few  days  or  play- 
ing truant ;  thi»  may  be  the  result  of  slackness  and  discon- 
tent, or  the  cause  may  be  found  in  fatigue.  sickneM,  or  per- 
hMft  home  troubles.  If  smooth  working  is  to  be  secured 
the  real  causes  of  sudi  discontent  and  trouble  ^nvat  be  as- 
certained and  ^>preciated.  Experienre.  however,  shows  that 
the  problems  invdved  are  outside  and  distinct  from  those 
of  ordinary  factory  discipline,  and  they  are  likely  to  remain 
unsolved  unless  somecme  is  specially  deputed  for  the  pur- 
poee.' 

The  Ministry's  instructkxis  to  the  "investigating  officers,"  who 
visited  munition  plants  for  the  labor  regulation  department, 
also  drew  attention  to  the  need  for  "wdfare  supervision"  of  bo>'s. 
"Since  it  is  recognized  on  all  hands  that  there  is  a  danger  of 
deterioration  in  the  working  boy  lietwcen  the  ages  of  14  and  18, 
it  is  of  urgent  national  importance  that  the  boy  should  be  brought 
under  careful  supervision  during  these  critical  years  of  his  life." 
The  duties  of  such  a  super\-iaor  as  outlined  in  this  and  other 
official  circulars,  were  similar  to  those  of  the  "welfare  workers" 
for  women  and  girls,  with  perhaps  more  emftaia.sis  on  training 
and  advancement.  A  "welfare  supervisor  of  boys"  or  "bo)- 
visitor"  should  attend  to  their  hiring,  discifriine.  and  dismissal, 
and  should  watch  their  progress  and  recommerd  for  promotion, 
arrange  opportunities  for  recreation,  technical  education,  and 
saving,  and  take  charge  of  the  health  arrangements.  A  number 
of  such  officials  were  appointed,  notably  in  national  iactorics. 
but  owing  to  the  fact  that  most  of  the  suitable  candidates  were 
in  military  service,  welfare  supervision  for  boys  was  much  less 
widely  developed  than  that  for  girls  and  women. 

« Great  Britain  Ministry  of  Munitions.  Health  of  Munition  Workeri  Com- 
mittee, Memorandum  No.  13,  "Juvenile  Employment,"  p.  6. 


WOMKN  AND  CHILORBN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


159 


Eifectt  of  War  Work  on  Boys  cmd  GirU 

War  work  sectiu  to  have  had  tome  moit  unfortunau  effects 
on  both  the  health  and  the  character  of  a  conaiderable  number  of 
boys  and  (prls.  The  high  wages  for  unskilled  work,  absence  of 
fathers  in  the  army  and  of  mothers  in  munitions  work,  excessive 
hours  of  labor  and  greater  pressure  of  work,  interruption  of  club 
and  other  recreational  and  educational  provisions,  the  dai'kenej 
streets  and  the  general  excitement  of  war  time  were  among  the 
principal  factors  blamed  for  the  change.  "Had  we  set  out  with 
the  deliberate  intention  of  manufacturing  juvenile  delinquents, 
could  we  have  done  so  in  any  more  certain  way  ?"  said  Mr.  Cecil 
Lecson,  secretary  of  the  Howard  Association.  Complaints  of  the 
watte  if  abnormally  high  wages  by  boys  and  girls  became  so 
serious  that  even  certain  labor  organizations,  which  are  generally 
opposed  to  such  plans,  advocated  attention  to  schemes  of  com- 
puls./ry  saving  or  deferred  payment.'  But  no  plans  of  the  sort 
seem  actually  to  have  been  put  into  effect. 

A  vivid  summary-  of  the  situation  was  made  in  March.  1917. 
in  the  Final  Report  of  the  Departmental  Committee  on  Juvenile 
Education  with  Special  Reference  to  Empli^ment  after  the  War, 
which  gave  a  depressing  pictwc  of  the  eff?<"'  >?'  the  war  on  work- 
ing b(^s  and  girls. 


!ir'08  has  come  the 


■n 


hardly  be  made 
''.At  needed  no  em- 
.  ur.\wn  at  an  evtn 


Upon  this  educational  K'^-'' 
war  to  aggravate  cono- i.>;(s 
graver,  and  to  emphasiye  i  r;.»f)i,! 
phasis.  Many  children  b.  ,  c  'x:; 
earlier  age  than  usual  fron:  »Ia.  s'ii  j'  ^i,  in'  the  attendances 
at  those  evening  schools  whiti"  'n„.v.-  r  ->t  bren  closed  show  a 
lamentable  shrinkage.  We  are  .10:  prepared  to  say  that 
much  of  the  work  which  is  now  being  done  by  juveniles  in 
munition  f^ctories  and  elsewhere  is  in  itself  inferior  to  the 
work  which  most  of  them  would  have  been  doing  in  nor- 
mal times,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  many  of  the  ten- 
dencies adversely  affecting  the  de\'elopment  of  character  and 
efficiency  have  incidentally  been  accentuated.  .  .  . 
Parental  control,  so  far  as  it  formerly  existed,  has  been 


>  Tht  Labour  n'oman,  July,  1916.  p.  34. 


160  ECONOMIC  EFFECT.'  DF  THE  WAR 

relaxed,  largely  through  the  absence  of  fathers  of  families 
from  their  homes.  Wages  have  been  exceptionally  high, 
and  although  this  has  led  to  an  improved  standard  of  living, 
it  has  also,  in  ill-regulated  households,  induced  habits  of 
foc^ish  and  mischievous  extravagance.  Even  the  ordinary 
discipline  of  the  woricshop  has  in  varying  degrees  given 
way;  while  the  withdrawal  of  influences  making  for  the 
social  improvement  of  boys  and  girls  has  in  many  districts 
been  followed  by  noticeable  deterioration  in  behavior  and 
morality.  Gambling  has  increased.  Excessive  hours  of 
strenuous  labor  have  overtaxed  the  powers  of  young  people; 
while  many  have  taken  advantage  of  the  extraordinary  de> 
mand  for  juvenile  labor  to  change  even  more  rapidly  than 
usual  from  one  blind  alley  employment  to  another. 

Among  boy  and  girl  munition  workers  evidences  of  a  break- 
down in  health  were  perhaps  not  general,  but  in  a  good  many 
cases  children  working  at  nig^t  or  long  hours  were  found  to  show 
signs  of  exhaustion.  In  the  1915  report  of  the  chief  inspector 
of  factories  the  principal  lady  inspector  stated: 

Miss  Constance  Smith  has  been  much  impressed  by  the 
mariced  difference  in  outward  effect  produced  by  night  em- 
ployment  on  adult  and  adolescent  workers.  "Very  young 
girls  show  almost  immediately,  in  my  experience,  symptoms 
of  lassitude,  exhaustion  and  impaired  vitality  under  the  in- 
fluence of  employment  at  night."  A  very  strong  similar 
impression  was  made  on  me  by  the  appearance  of  lai^ 
nimibers  of  young  boys  who  ha'  been  working  at  muni- 
tions for  a  \ong  time  on  alternate  day  and  night  shifts. 

The  special  investigator  of  the  "health  of  male  munition 
workers"  noted  that  51  per  cent  of  the  900  boys  in  one  large 
factory  complained  of  sleepiness  and  weariness  on  the  nig^t  shift. 
"It  is  contrary  to  the  laws  of  nature  for  younp  children — for  such 
many  of  these  are — to  le  able  to  turn  night  into  day  without 
feeling  an  effect.  .  .  .  On  the  night  shift"?,  boys  do  not  toler- 
ate well  long  hours.  It  'las  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  average 
age  of  the  boys  examined  would  certainly  not  exceed  15  years, 
and  it  makes  one  consider  very  seriously  the  future  of  the  rising 
generation." 


WOMEN  AXD  CHnj>RBN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


161 


The  same  inquiry  brought  out  the  unfavorable  effects  of  long 
daily  hours  of  work  on  young  boys.  While  among  all  the  1,500 
boys  examined  "no  very  gross  dtgrte  of  ill-health  was  prevalent," 
10.6  per  cent  of  those  woricing  more  than  60  hours  wedcly,  and 
only  6.7  per  cent  of  those  working  less  than  60  hours,  were  not 
in  "good"  physical  condition.  "This  difference  is  a  serious  one." 
In  the  heavy  trades  "the  effect  upon  the  boys  was  commencing  to 
show  itself.  Many  though  little  more  than  fourteen  were  work- 
ing twelve-hour  shifts  and  dcnng  heavy  work.  The  boys  in  these 
shops  manipulate  heavy  pieces  of  steel  at  a  temperature  of  900* 
F.  They  struck  me  as  being  considerably  overworked;  they 
looked  dull  and  spiritless,  and  conversation  with  them  gave  the 
impression  that  they  were  languid.  In  fact,  all  the  bt^s  in  this 
group  were  working  far  too  hard." 

The  investigator  contrasted  with  the  poor  condition  of  many 
boy  munition  workers  the  "healthy  and  intelligent  appearance" 
of  the  boys  in  one  factory  where  comparatively  short  hours,  no 
night  woric,  and  free  Saturday  afternoons  and  Sundays  gave 
them  time  for  outdoor  play.  "On  the  other  hand,  many  of  the 
boys  I  examined  at  other  factories  are  showing  definite  signs  of 
the  wear  and  tear  to  which  they  are  subjected.  Pale,  anemic, 
dull,  and  expressionless,  their  conditions  would  excite  great  com- 
miseration. Conditions  outside  the  factory  contribute  their  share 
and  if  the  war  is  to  continue  for  a  long  time  and  these  boys  re- 
main subject  to  conditions  such  as  described,  the  effect  upon  their 
general  health  will  be  difficult  to  remedy." 

As  with  women,  long  periods  spent  in  transit,  insufficient  sleep, 
and  overcrowded  homes,  in  addition  to  excessive  hours  of  factory 
work,  often  affected  the  health  of  working  boys  and  girls.  "While 
engaged  for  twelve  hours  per  day  in  the  faetoty,"  it  was  said  of 
boy  munition  makers,  "they  spend  in  a  large  number  of  cases 
from  two  and  one-half  to  four  hours  traveling  to  and  from  their 
homes.  .  .  .  These  hours,  added  to  the  working  hours,  leave 
very  little  time  for  meals  at  home,  recreation,  or  sleep."*    Many 


>  Great  Britain  Ministry  of  Munitions.  Health  of  Munition  Workert  Com- 
mittee, Intirim  Report,  p.  103. 


li>? 


ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 


boys  and  girls  failed  to  get  enough  sleep  becausi  of  "the  tempto- 
tioos  of  the  cinema  and  the  amusements  of  the  street."  In  many 
cases,  even  when  wages  were  hig^,  the  Health  of  Munition 
Workers  Committee  found  that  three  persons  occupied  a  single 
bed,  and  four  or  five  shared  a  room.  The  following  cases  were 
given  as  typical.  A  boy  of  fourteen,  earning  about  19s.  weekly 
($4.56),  slq)t  in  the  same  bed  with  two  young  men,  while  two 
young  girls  occupied  another  bed  in  the  same  room.  A  boy  of 
sixteen,  with  wages  averaging  22s.  a  week  ($5.28).  shared  a  bed 
with  another  boy.  while  another  boy  and  girl  slept  in  the  same 
room. 

The  deterioration  in  character  among  woricing  boys  was  appar- 
ently even  more  mariced  than  the  decline  in  health.  According 
to  Mr.  Leeson  juvenile  delinquency  was  34  per  cent  greater  dur- 
ing the  three  months  ending  February.  1916.  than  for  a  .  'milar 
period  in  the  previous  year.  In  Manchester,  the  increase  was  56 
per  cent ;  in  Edinburgh  it  was  46  per  cent.  The  delinquency  of 
boys  twelve  and  thirteen,  the  ages  for  which  most  of  the  school 
exemptions  were  issued,  had  increased  in  greater  proportion  than 
that  of  any  other  age  group. 


Position  of  Working  Boys  and  Girls  after  the  War 

Almost  the  only  hopeful  feature  of  the  effect  of  the  war  on 
working  children  is  a  changed  point  of  view  regarding  their  future 
needs.  At  the  annual  convention  of  the  National  Teachers' 
Union,  in  April,  1917,  the  presideM  said  in  his  address:  "This 
great  war,  with  its  terrible  wastage  of  human  life  and  material, 
has  brought  into  bold  relief  the  economic  potentialities  of  the 
child.  As  never  before,  the  nation  now  realizes  that  efficient  men 
and  women  are  the  best  permanent  capital  the  State  possesses. 
Hence  greater  national  concern  is  in  evidence  for  the  care  and 
upbringing  of  the  child."  In  the  case  of  working  children,  it  is 
recc^nized  that  many  of  them  should  be  taken  out  of  the  laljor 
market  altogether,  that  their  opportunities  for  education  should 
be  improved,  and  that  their  first  years  of  work  should  be  better 
supervised. 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


163 


The  diicial  proposals,  which  were  strikingly  like  those  for- 
mulated by  several  groups  of  workers'  organizations,  were  put 
forward  in  March,  1917,  in  the  Final  Report,  previously  cited,  of 
the  Departmtntal  Committee  on  Juvenile  Education  in  Relation 
to  Employment  alter  the  War.  Their  fwrpose,  according  to  the 
committee,  was  to  replace  "the  conception  of  the  juvenile  as  pri- 
marily a  little  wage  earner  ...  by  the  conception  of  the 
juvenile  as  primarily  the  workman  and  the  citizen  in  training" 
aw!  to  make  "the  educational  purpose  the  dominating  one,  with- 
out as  within  the  school  doors,  during  those  formative  years  be- 
tween twelve  and  eighteen."  Measures  recormnended  toward 
that  end  were  the  establishment  of  a  juvenile  advisory  committee 
in  connection  with  every  employment  exchange,  a  uniform  school 
leaving  age  of  fourteen,  with  all  exemptions  abolished,  the  amend- 
ment of  the  factory  acts  to  correspond.  ?;id  day  continuation 
classes,  eight  hours  weekly  and  forty  weel  s  a  year  for  all  work- 
ing children  between  fourteen  and  eighteen  years  old,  the  time 
for  which  was  to  come  out  of  their  working  hours. 

A  bill  embodying  these  recommendations  was  introduced  in 
the  House  of  Commons  during  the  summer  of  191",  by  the  presi- 
dent of  the  Board  of  Educaticm,  Mr.  Herbert  Fisher.  Beside 
provision  for  compulsory  continuation  school  and  for  full-time 
schfjoJing  up  to  the  age  of  fourteen,  without  exemptions,  the 
measure  included  a  number  of  other  improvements  over  existing 
standards.  Children  might  leave  school  only  twice  a  year,  at 
the  end  of  the  term  in  which  fell  their  fourteenth  birthday.  Local 
authorities  might  raise  the  compulsory  school  s^e  to  fifteen,  m 
that  case  allowing  children  to  be  excused  for  cause  during  the 
additional  year.  AH  gainful  employment  by  children  under 
twelve  was  forbidden.  Children  between  twelve  and  fourteen 
m^rht  work  on  school  days  only  between  the  close  of  school  and 
8  p.m..  and  on  other  days  between  6  a.m.  and  8  p.m.  The  bill 
passed  its  first  reading  in  the  House  of  Commons  in  August. 
1917,  but  was  postponed  in  the  autumn  for  action  at  the  follow- 
ing session.  If  the  measure  is  enacted  into  law  the  final  eflfcct 
of  the  war  on  English  child  labor  standards  will  be  to  lift  them 
to  a  higher  level  than  had  been  attained  at  any  previous  period. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

Eff  ecti  of  War  Work  on  Wrnnen 

At  this  time,  when  the  World  War  shows  few  signs  of  draw- 
ing to  a  close,  it  is  of  course  impossible  to  write  with  assurance 
of  the  effects  of  war  work  on  the  woman  workers  themselves. 
It  will  not  be  until  two  or  three  years  after  the  struggle  is  over, 
when  the  strain  and  excitement  are  past,  that  many  women  will 
feel  the  full  physical  effects  of  their  war  time  efforts.  And  the 
new  independence  and  interest  in  impersonal  issues  which  seems 
to  have  arisen  among  many  factory  workers  may  not  sur\'ive  the 
stress  of  the  necessary  post-war  industrial  readjustments.  All 
that  can  be  done  is  to  suggest  a  few  striking  points  already  notice- 
able in  connection  with  the  effects  of  war  work  on  the  health, 
home  life,  and  personality  of  working  women. 

Health  of  Women  War  Workers 

Definite  investigations  of  the  health  of  women  workers  were 
mainly  confined  to  the  muniticms  industry  and  were  made  by  the 
Health  of  Munition  Workers  Committee.  The  general  conclu- 
sion of  the  committee  that  by  the  latter  months  of  191 5  the  health 
of  the  munition  makers,  both  men  and  women,  had  been  injured 
through  overwork,  has  been  much  quoted  in  the  United  States: 

Taking  the  country  as  a  whole,  the  committee  are  bound 
to  record  their  impression  that  the  munition  workers  in 
general  have  been  allowetl  to  reach  a  state  of  reduced  effi- 
ciency and  lowered  health  which  might  have  been  avoided 
without  reduction  of  output  by  attention  to  the  details  of 
daily  and  weekly  rests. 

The  committees  statements  about  female  workers  alone  were 
of  similar  tenor : 


m. 


WOMKN  AND  CHILORKN  IN  GBEAT  BVITAIN 


165 


The  committee  are  satisfied  that  there  is  a  significant 
amount  of  physical  disability  among  women  in  factories 
which  calls  both  for  prevention  and  treatment  ...  the 
lifting  and  carrying  of  heavy  weights  and  all  sudden,  vio- 
lent, or  physically  unsuitable  movements  in  the  operation  of 
machines  should,  as  far  as  practicable,  be  avoided.  .  .  . 
Prolonged  standing  should  be  restricted  to  work  from  which 
it  is  inseparable. 

Conditions  of  woric  are  accepted  without  question  and 
without  complaint  which,  immediately  detrimental  to  out- 
put, would,  if  continued,  be  ultimately  disastrous  to  health. 
It  is  for  the  nation  to  safeguard  the  devotion  of  its  workers 
by  its  foresight  and  watchfuhiess  lest  irreparable  harm  be 
done  body  and  mind  both  in  this  generation  and  the  next. 

The  committee  desire  to  sUte  that,  in  their  opinion,  if 
the  present  long  hours,  the  lack  of  helpful  and  sympathetic 
oversight,  the  inability  to  obtain  good,  wholesome  food, 
and  the  great  difficulties  of  traveling  are  allowed  to  continue 
it  will  he  impracticable  to  secure  or  maintain  for  an  ex- 
tended period  the  high  maximum  output  of  which  women 
are  undoubtedly  capable.' 

The  conclusions  of  the  factory  inspectors  in  1915  as  to  the 
health  of  women  munition  makers  and  the  results  of  later  inves- 
tigation under  the  auspices  of  the  committee  reiterate  similar 
though  perhaps  slightly  more  favorable  conclusions.  "Reports 
of  inspectors  from  all  parts  of  the  cotmtry"  did  not  show  that,  as 
yet,  the  strain  of  long  hours  had  caused  "any  serious  breakdown 
among  the  workers."  though  there  were  "indications  of  fatigue 
of  a  less  serious  kind."  "Individual  workers  confess  to  feeling 
tired  and  to  becoming  'stale' ;  there  are  complaints  of  bad  time- 
keeping, and  there  is  a  general  tendency  towards  a  reduction  of 
hours."' 

Between  January  and  July.  1916,  a  study  of  the  health  of  1.326 
women  chosen  at  random  from  eleven  munition  factories  was 
made  for  the  Health  ot  Munition  Workers    Committee.     The 


>  Great  Britain  Ministry  of  Munitions,  Health  of  Munition  Workers  Com- 
mittee, Afemorondum  No.  4,  "Employment  of  Women."  pp.  3,  10 

•Great  Britain  Home  Office.  Report  of  the  Chief  Inspector  of  Factories 
and  Workshops  for  igis,  PP-  9-10. 


n 


166 


ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 


inquiry  included  an  investigation  of  home  and  working  condi- 
tions and  a  physical  examination.  Of  the  women  examined,  57.5 
per  cent  were  classed  as  "healthy,"  34  per  cent  as  "showing 
slight  fatigue,"  and  only  8.5  per  cent  as  "showing  marked  fa- 
tigue." These  findings  were  regarded  as  more  satisfactory  than 
had  been  anticipated.  "Most  of  the  inspectors  had  expected  to 
discover  far  more  fatigue  directly  attributable  to  the  conditions 
of  work,  and  were  agreeably  surprised  at  the  general  physical 
condition  of  the  workers."  Moreover,  it  was  believed  that  subse- 
quent to  the  investigation  the  dangers  to  health  were  reduced  by 
many  improvements  in  working  conditions.  On  the  other  hand 
it  was  noted  that  "those  who  felt  fatigue  most  may  have  left  the 
factories,  and  so  failed  to  come  under  review."  Among  a  com- 
paratively small  group  of  workers.  134  in  number,  increased  evi- 
dei^es  of  ill  health  were  found  among  those  who  had  been  at 
won?  more  than  six  nKmths.  Moreover,  many  women  who  are 
able  to  keep  up  as  long  as  the  excitement  of  war  work  lasts,  may 
feel  the  strain  when  the  war  is  over  and  they  relax.  It  will  not 
be  until  several  years  after  the  end  of  the  war  that  the  health 
results  of  munitions  work  can  be  fully  measured. 

Other  factors  likely  to  be  injurious  to  health  included  the  fre- 
quent twelve-hour  shifts  and  the  premium  bonus  system  of  pay- 
ment. There  were  numerous  complaints  of  the  strain  of  twelve- 
hour  shifts,  which  usually  entailed  ten  and  a  half  hours  of  actual 
work.  Particularly  in  the  case  of  married  women  with  children 
the  strain  of  these  hours  af^ared  to  be  excessive.  It  has  been 
noted  that  the  system  is  increasing  rather  than  decreasing.  The 
factory  inspectors  stated  in  1915  that  especially  at  night  the 
twelve-hour  shift  "for  any  length  of  time  for  women  .  . 
is  undoubtedly  trying,  and  permissiUe  only  for  war  emergencies 
with  careful  make-weights  in  the  way  of  good  food  and  welfare 
arrangements."'  The  last  hours  of  the  twelve-hour  night  ^ift 
were  often  found  to  yield  but  little  additional  output. 

Such  a  judgment  is  not  surprising  when  the  nature  of  the  work 

'  Great  Britain  Home  Office.  Report  of  the  Chief  Inspector  of  Faclorut 
and  n  orkshops  for  tgis,  p.  14. 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


167 


frequently  done  by  women  munition  makers  is  considered.  To 
be  sure,  such  work  as  filling  shells  with  explosive  mixtures  was 
easy  and  semi-automatic;  but  other  tasks,  for  example,  examin- 
ing and  gauging,  although  light,  took  much  attention  and  exacti- 
tude; and  some  work,  such  as  turning  shells,  was  comparatively 
heavy.  In  lifting  shells  in  and  out  of  the  lathe  women  were 
obliged  to  stretch  over  the  machine,  which  involved  a  consider- 
able strain  on  the  arms  with  the  heavier  shells.  For  shells  over 
40-50  pounds,  special  lifting  apparatus  was  supposed  to  be  pro- 
vided, or  a  male  laborer  used  to  lift  the  shell,  but  women,  in  their 
haste  to  proceed,  sometimes  failed  to  wait  for  help.  A  number 
of  compensation  cases  have  arisen  ni  which  women  were  s<'ri- 
ously  injured  by  heavy  lifting.  Obviously,  ten  and  a  half  hours 
of  the  heavier  work  might  be  a  serious  strain.  Moreover,  long 
train  journeys  were  frequently  necessary,  adding  two  or  three 
hours  to  the  time  spent  away  from  home.  Out  of  seventy-five 
women  whose  working  hours  began  at  6  a.m.  and  ended  at 
8  p.m.,  none  had  time  for  more  than  about  seven  and  a  half 
hours'  sleep,  and  many  of  them  less  than  seven  hours.  Only  nine- 
teen of  these  women  were  over  twenty  years  of  age. 

The  premium  bonus  systems  of  payment,  which  have  become 
more  and  more  common,  provide  increased  rates  for  increased 
output.  In  some  cases  such  systems  were  said  to  have  proved 
"a  strong  temptation  to  injurious  over-exertion."  One  ex- 
ample was  that  of  a  woman  who  had  "won  a  'shift'  bonus  by 
turning  out  132  shells  (nose-profiling)  in  wie  shift  where  the 
normal  output  was  100  shells,  and  had  had,  as  a  result,  to  remain 
in  bed  on  the  following  day.  When  it  was  pointed  out  to  her 
later  that  she  had  acted  foolishly,  her  rej^y  was  that  she  knew 
but  she  'wasn't  going  to  be  beat.' '" 

.As  counteracting  influences  to  these  strains,  several  factors 
were  brought  forward.  Improved  pay,  and  the  more  nourishing 
food,  better  clothing,  and  living  conditions  which  it  often  enabled 
women  workers  to  secure  were  most  frequently  mentioned.   "The 


» British  .Association   for  the  .Advancement  of   Science.  Labour,  finance, 
and  iHe  War,  p.  117. 


icoMOMic  Brracn  or  thk  wai 


I' 


1         5 


n 


dietary  was  in  moat  cases  more  ample  and  suitable  than  the  work- 
ers had  been  used  to  previously,"  said  the  investigators  for  the 
Health  of  Munition  Workers  Committee.  It  has  been  observed 
that  many  well  paid  women  gave  up  the  supposedly  feminine 
habit  of  living  on  bread  and  tea  for  substantial  meals  of  meat  and 
vegetables.  The  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science  noted  a  higher  "physical  and  mental  tone"  due  to  the 
better  standards  permitted  by  higher  wages.  The  health  of  low- 
paid  workers  frequently  improved  after  entering  munitions  work.' 
The  improvements  in  factory  sanitation  encouraged  by  the  Min- 
istry of  Munitions  were  likewise  helpful  in  decreasing  the  risks  to 
health,  and  the  patriotic  spirit  of  the  women  also  received  men- 
tion as  a  partial  preventive  of  fatigue.  "The  excitement  of  doin,; 
'war  work'  and  making  munitions  added  a  zest  and  interest  to 
the  work  which  tended  to  lessen  the  fatigue  experienced,"  said 
the  physicians  who  investigated  the  health  of  women  munition 
workers  for  the  Health  of  Munition  Workers  Committee. 

EjBfecfs  of  Night  Work 

It  is  generally  believed  that  the  wisdom  of  forbidding  night 
work  by  women  has  been  clearly  demonstrated  by  experience 
during  the  war.  Women,  especially  married  women,  did  not 
stand  night  work  as  well  as  men.  The  British  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of  Science  said,  in  .\pril,  1916: 

It  would  be  well  if  the  experience  of  those  industries  in 
which  nig^t  work  has  become  a  temporary  necessity  could 
be  made  widely  known.  The  adverse  effects  on  output,  not 
to  mention  the  'owering  of  the  health  of  the  workers,  should 
be  a  sufficient  <;afeguard  against  any  attempt  permanently  to 
remove  the  factory  act  restriction.' 

The  earlier  investigaticns  of  the  Health  of  Munition  Workers 
Committee  also  confirmed  the  dangers  of  night  work  for  women. 
In  one  factory  visited  at  night  fatigue  was  found  to  prevent  many 


'  Labour,  Finance,  and  th*  War,  p.  129. 
«/Wrf.,  p.  84. 


WOMBN  AND  CHILDMCN  IN  GREAT  MITAIN 


169 


of  the  women  from  getting  a  meal  at  the  rest  period.  In  another 
"leveral  women  were  lying,  during  the  meal  hour,  betide  their 
piles  of  heaped-up  work,  while  others,  later,  were  asleep  beside 
their  machines.'" 

The  night  work  in  munition  factories  had  once  more  empha- 
sized, said  the  committee,  the  "half-forgotten  facu"  about  its 
injurious  effects  on  women.  "In  a  working  class  home  the  diffi- 
culty in  obtaining  rest  by  day  is  great;  quiet  can  not  be  easily 
secured :  and  the  mother  of  a  family  can  not  sleep  while  the  claims 
of  children  and  home  are  pressing  upon  her;  the  younger  un- 
married women  are  tempted  to  take  the  daylight  hours  for  amuse- 
ment or  shopping;  moreover,  deep  is  often  interrupted  in  order 
that  the  mid-day  meal  may  be  shared."' 

It  must  be  acknowledged,  however,  that  in  its  later  interim 
report  the  committee  was  somewhat  less  imfavorable  to  night 
work  by  women.  While  it  was  found  that  continuous  night  work 
reduced  output,  a  group  of  women  on  ahemate  weeks  of  day  and 
night  work  lost  less  time  than  when  on  continuous  day  work. 
The  committee  did  not,  to  be  sure,  consider  night  work  desirable, 
but  inevitable  during  the  war  emergency  as  long  as  production 
must  be  increased  to  its  highest  point.  Because  they  were  espe- 
cially likely  to  do  houseworic  during  the  day  and  to  get  very  little 
sleep,  the  physicians  who  examined  women  munition  workers 
believed  night  work  to  be  "too  heavy  a  burden  for 'the  average 
married  women." 

Aside  from  munitions  work,  the  principal  evidence  as  to  health 
conditions  concerned  women  who  were  replacing  men  on  outdoor 
work.  Observers  generally  expressed  surprise  at  the  improve- 
ment in  health  and  appetite  which  tock  place,  even  when  the  work 
was  heavy.  Fresh  air,  better  wages,  and  better  food  were  believed 
to  account  for  the  gains  in  health.  Some  of  the  women  who  be- 
came railway  porters  found  the  work  too  heavy,  however,  and 


>  Great  Britain  Ministry  of  Munitions,  Health  of  Munition  Workers  Com- 
mittee, Memorandum  No.  4,  "Employment  of  Women,"  p.  4. 


ii 


170 


KONOific  JuwMCn  or  tbi  war 


the  ntrvoin  •train  often  proved  exccMiv*  tor  women  tnm- 

drivcfBi 

Sonuning  up  the  neresurily  dii^t  evidence,  it  mty  be  Mid  that 
three  yean  of  war  work  hat  hardly  caused  any  wrioua  general 
bceakdown  in  health  amoof  women  worken,  though  »onie  ill 
effects  were  noted  in  a  coniiderable  number  of  caiet.  The  unde- 
iirability  of  night  work  for  women  wai  coiArmed.  Higher 
wages  seemed  to  be  one  of  the  most  important  factors  in  offsetting 
the  evils  of  overwork.  But  in  spite  of  better  wages  and  woricing 
conditions  and  some  reduction  of  the  abnormal  hours  frequent  in 
the  early  months  of  the  war,  many  women,  especially  in  muni- 
tions, seem  to  have  worked  under  a  severe  strain.  This  will  make 
the  provision  of  a  first  grade  factory  environment  increasingly 
important,  if  the  women  are  not  to  suffer  when  the  excitement 
of  war  service  is  over.  Increased  maternity  welfare  provisions 
will  also  be  acutely  needed  when  the  young  girls  who  have  gone 
through  the  rtrenuous  days  of  war  service  become  mothers.  Yet 
if  "proper  caie  and  foresight  are  exercised,"  in  the  judgment  of 
the  physicians  who  examined  women  munition  workers,  "there 
seems  no  reason  why  women  and  girls,  suiuWy  selected  and 
supervised  and  working  under  appropriate  conditions,  should  not 
take  their  place  in  munition  factories  and  carry  out  many  opera- 
tions hitherto  considered  fit  only  for  men  without  permanent 
detriment  to  their  future  health."* 

Effects  of  War  Work  on  Home  Life 
Unfortunately  it  seems  probable  that  conditions  of  work  in  the 
munition  centers  have  been  such  as  to  have  a  disintegrating  effect 
on  home  life.  Long,  woricing  hours,  frequent  long  train  trips  in 
addition  to  those  hours,  overcrowded  houses,  the  increased  em- 
ployment of  married  women  and  of  women  at  a  distance  from 
their  homes  have  all  contributed  to  this  result 

Two  quotations,   one   from   dficial.    the   other   from   labor 

1  Great  Britain  Ministry  of  Munitions,  Health  of  Munition  Workers  Com- 
mittee, Inltrim  Rtfori,  p.  119. 


WOMBK  AKD  CBIUNIKN  IM  OMUT  SanAIN 


171 


•OURM,  illustrate  the  way  in  which  home  life  wai  too  often 
diuitpted  by  munitioni  work.    According  to  the  fir»t : 

While  the  urgent  neceuity  for  women*!  work  remains, 
and  while  the  mother's  time  and  the  time  of  the  elder  girls 
is  largely  given  to  the  making  of  munitions,  the  home  and 
die  younger  children  must  inevitably  suffer.  Where  home 
conditions  are  bad.  as  they  frequently  are,  where  a  long 
working  day  is  aggravated  by  long  hours  of  traveling  and 
where,  in  addition,  housing  accommodation  is  inadequate, 
family  life  is  defaced  beyond  recognition.  .  .  .  Often 
far  from  offering  a  rest  from  the  fatigue  of  the  day.  the 
home  conditions  offer  but  fresh  aggravation.  .\  day  begun 
at  4  or  even  3 :30  a.m..  for  work  at  6  a.m.,  followed  by 
14  hours  in  the  factory  and  another  2  or  2«^  hours  on  the 
journey  back,  may  end  at  10  or  10:30  p.m..  in  a  home  or 
lodging  where  the  prevailing  degree  of  overcrowding  pre- 
cludes all  possibility  of  comfortable  rest.  In  such  condi- 
tions of  confusion,  pressure  and  overcrowding,  home  can 
have  no  existence.' 

Since  January.  1916.  attention  to  the  "welfare"  of  women 
workers  outside  the  factory  by  the  Ministry  of  Munitions  no 
doubt  often  improved  the  conditions.  But  early  in  1917  a  com- 
mittee of  women  labor  leaders  still  felt  that  home  life  had  in  many 
cases  been  disorganized. 

The  result  of  war  conditions  has  naturally  been  very 
marked  in  its  effects  on  the  health  and  well-being  of  the 
women  and  children  at  home.  The  demand  for  the  work 
of  women  ...  has  been  such  that  a  large  number  of 
nutrried  women  have  been  pressed  into  industrial  employ- 
ment. This  means,  on  the  erne  hand,  a  certain  neglect  of 
the  duty  of  keeping  their  homes,  and  on  the  other  an  extra 
and  heavy  burden  on  their  strength  in  order  to  fulfil,  how- 
ever inadequately,  some  part  of  these  necessary  duties.  The 
children,  as  well  as  the  women,  have  suffered  from  these 
results.* 

I  Great  Britain  Ministry  of  Munitioni,  Health  of  Munition  Workers  Com- 
mittee. Memorandum  No.  4.  "Employment  of  Women,    p.  5. 

•  Committee  of  Industrial  Women's  OrBanizationt,  The  Position  of  Women 
After  the  War.  p.  9. 


172 


eclvomic  effects  of  the  war 


To  be  sure,  in  the  first  months  of  the  war  the  increase  in  family 
income  had  often  meant  beftter  food,  but  even  this  advantage 
was  disappearing  with  the  rapid  rise  in  prices. 

De7>elopment  of  Personality  in  Women  War  Workers 

Nevertheless,  surprising  as  it  may  seem  in  view  of  the  harm 
which  war  work  appears  often  to  have  done  to  home  life  and 
sometimes  to  health,  the  development  of  the  woman  industrial 
worker  under  it  may  prove  to  be  one  of  the  most  important 
changes  wrought  by  the  conflict. 

An  interesting  article  in  The  New  Statesman^  suggested  that 
"three  years  of  war  have  been  enough  to  effect  an  amazing  trans- 
formation," in  the  average  factory  woman,  especially  in  the  muni- 
tion centers.  They  had  gained  an  independence  and  an  interest 
in  impers<Mial  affairs  seldom  found  before  the  war.  "They  appear 
more  alert,  more  critical  of  the  conditions  under  which  they  woric, 
more  ready  to  make  a  stand  against  injustice  than  their  pre-war 
selves  or  their  prototypes.  They  seem  to  have  wider  interests 
and  more  corporate  feeling.  They  have  a  keener  appetite  for 
experience  and  pleasure  and  a  tendency  quite  new  to  their  class  to 
protest  against  wrongs  even  before  they  become  intolerable."  It 
is  "not  that  an  entire  class  has  been  reborn,  but  that  the  average 
factory  woman  is  less  helpless,  and  that  the  class  is  evolving  its 
own  leaders."  The  writer  ascribed  the  change  in  the  main  to  a 
wider  choice  of  employments,  occasional  gains'  in  real  wages, 
praise  of  the  women's  value  in  war  service,  and  their  discontent 
with  the  deration  of  the  munitions  acts  and  other  government 
measures : 


Again,  the  brains  of  the  girl  worker  have  been  sharpened 
by  the  disccmtent  of  her  family.  She  is  living  in  an  atmos- 
phere of  discontent  with  almost  all  established  things.  There 
is  discontent  because  of  the  high  prices  of  milk  and  meat, 
because  of  the  scarcity  of  potatoes,  sugar,  butter  or  mar- 
garine, because  of  the  indigestible  quality  of  the  war  bread. 


» June  23,  1917,  p.  271. 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


173 


because  of  the  increased  railway  fares  and  the  big  profiu  of 
many  employers  and  contractors.  There  is  discontent  with 
the  discipline  of  the  army,  with  the  humiliating  position  of 
brothers  and  husbands  and  sweethearts  who  are  privates, 
with  the  inadequacy  of  army  pensions  and  the  delay  in  giv- 
ing them.  There  is  rage  against  the  munitions  act,  against 
munitions  tribunals  and  military  tribunals.  Every  member 
of  the  family  has  his  or  her  grievance.  The  father  perhaps 
is  a  skilled  engineer  and  is  afraid  that  he  is  being  robbed 
of  the  value  of  his  skill  by  the  process  of  dilution.  The  eldest 
son  is  in  the  army,  and  perhaps  sends  home  tales  of  petty 
tyrannies,  and  minor,  avoidable  irritations.  Another  son. 
with  incurable  physical  defects,  is  forced  into  the  Army  and 
falls  dangerously  ill.  One  daughter  goes  to  another  town 
to  woric  in  a  munitions  factory,  can  not  get  a  leaving  certifi- 
cate, and  barely  earns  enough  to  pay  for  board  and  lodg- 
ing. Thus  the  women  of  the  family  are  being  brought  more 
than  ever  before  into  contact  with  questions  of  principles 
and  rights.  Questions  of  government  administration  arc 
forced  upon  their  notice.  And  in  the  factory  the  very  men 
who  used  to  tell  them  that  trade  imionism  was  no  concern 
of  theirs  are  urging  them  to  organize  for  the  protection  of 
men  workers  as  well  as  of  themselves.  .  .  .  The  woman 
worker  who  was  formerly  forbidden  by  her  menfolk  to 
interest  herself  in  public  questions  is  now  assured  by  poli- 
ticians, journalists,  and  the  men  who  work  at  her  side  that 
her  labor  is  one  of  the  most  vital  elements  in  the  national 
scheme  of  defence,  and  that  after  the  war  it  is  going  to 
be  one  of  the  most  formidable  problems  of  reconstruction. 
Flatten,'  and  discontent  have  always  been  the  soundest  school- 
masters. The  factory  woman  was  a  case  of  arrested  develop- 
ment, and  the  war  has  given  her  a  brief  opportunity  which 
she  is  using  to  come  into  line  with  men  of  her  own  class. 

Though  naturally  more  guarded  in  expression,  the  factory  in- 
spectors' report  for  1916  reflected  a  very  similar  opinion.  The 
change  was  noted  principally  among  women  substitutes  for 
men.  There,  especially  in  heavy  work,  "the  acquisition  of  men's 
rates  of  pay  has  had  a  peculiarly  ^nheartening  and  stimulating 
effect."  On  the  northeast  coast  in  particular,  where  p'-e-war 
oj^ort;         5  for  women  had  been  limited  and  their  wages  very 


II 
i 
I 


174 


ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 


low,  their  replacement  of  men  in  shipbuilding,  munitions,  chemi- 
cals, and  iron  warks  had  "revolutionized"  the  position  of  the 
woman  worker. 

"The  national  gain  appears  to  me  to  be  overwhelming,"  it  wm 
stated  further,  "as  against  all  risks  of  loss  or  disturbance,  in  the 
new  self-confidence  engendered  in  women  by  the  very  consideraUe 
proportion  of  cases  where  they  are  efficiently  doing  men's  work 
at  men's  rates  of  pay.  If  this  new  valuation  can  be  reflected  on 
to  their  own  spe'-ial  and  often  highly  skilled  and  nationally  indis- 
pensable occupations  a  renaissance  may  there  be  effected  of  far 
greater  significance  even  than  the  immediate  widening  of  women's 
opportunities,  great  as  that  is.  Undervaluation  there  in  the  past 
has  been  the  bane  of  efficiency,  and  has  meant  a  heavy  loss  to  the 
nation."' 

Already  the  nation's  appreciation  of  the  value  of  women's  war 
work  is  reflected  in  the  passage  of  a  measure  of  woman  suffrage 
through  the  House  of  Commons.  The  old  traditions  of  what 
women  woHcers  can  do  are  broken  down,  a  fact  which  may  have 
a  marked  ''vet  on  the  vocational  and  technical  education  of  girls 
in  future.  But  the  working  women  seem  likely  to  have  need  of 
all  thei:  new  bom  confidence  and  their  new  weapon  of  the  vote — 
which,  incidentally,  is  not  to  be  given  to  the  younger  women — ^to 
hold  their  gains  without  injuring  the  position  of  working  men 
in  the  industrial  readjustment  which  will  follow  the  war.  It  is 
estimated  that  the  cessation  of  war  demands  will  throw  half  the 
working  population  of  the  United  Kingdom  out  of  work,  besides 
which,  several  millions  of  soldiers  must  be  restored  to  civil  em- 
ployment. It  is  likely  that  working  women  will  suffer  in  these 
changes  even  more  severely  than  working  men.  Probably  a  larger 
proportion  of  the  women  are  in  war  industries,  and  many  who  are 
taking  men's  places  both  in  war  work  and  the  more  stafde  lines 
hold  their  positions  under  agreements  which  limit  their  employ- 
ment strictly  to  the  duration  of  the  war.  Even  though  many 
women  will  return  to  their  homes  or  marrv  at  the  end  of  the 


'  Great  Britain  Home  Office,  Report  of  the  Chief  Inspector  of  Factories 
and  Workshops  for  1916,  pp.  6.  7. 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


175 


war,  and  though  the  losses  in  military  service  will  make  places 
for  not  a  few  of  the  increased  number  of  women  of  the  present 
generation  who  must  remain  single  and  support  themselves  per- 
manently, yet  a  serious  problem  remains. 

The  government  is,  to  be  sure,  taking  steps  in  the  matter,  and 
has  appointed  a  "Ministrj-  of  Reconstruction"  to  work  out  plans 
for  meeting  the  situation.  Nearly  all  the  munition  workers  will 
be  covered  by  unemployment  insurance  for  some  time  after 
the  war.  Methods  of  demobilizing  the  army  and  of  releasing 
munition  workers  so  as  to  cause  as  little  industrial  disturb- 
ance as  ivossible  arc  being  worked  out,  and  the  employment  ex- 
change system  is  to  be  expanded  to  help  in  the  process.  Schemes 
for  public  work,  for  cottage  building,  and  for  land  settlement  on 
a  large  scale  are  being  developed,  which  will  assist  women  work- 
ers indirectly  by  reducing  the  competition  for  jobs  in  lines  they 
can  undertake.  The  official  view  is  that  the  problem  will  be  in 
great  part  solved  by  the  revival  of  the  luxury  trades  and  domes- 
tic service  and  the  return  of  the  women  who  came  from  these 
occupations. 

But  such  readjustments  take  time  and  at  best  many  women 
..re  likely  to  look  for  work  in  vain  during  the  period  of  dislo- 
cation. On  this  account,  if  the  policy  of  exclusion  from  "men's 
work"  and  frc«n  men's  unions  is  kept  up,  even  though  the  men 
regain  their  pla<!es  for  a  time,  the  unemployed  women  will  form 
dangerous  competitors,  w^ose  needs  may  drive  them  to  undercut 
the  men's  wage  rates. 

A  solutic«  of  the  difficulty  Uas  been  put  forward  by  those 
interested  in  an  after-war  "reconstruction"  which  aims  not 
simply  to  tide  over  industry  from  a  war  to  a  peace  basis,  but  also 
to  utilize  the  period  of  transition  to  put  the  labor  problem  on  a 
permanently  better  basis.  These  persons  advocate  the  opening 
to  women  of  all  suitable  occupations,  access  to  the  appropriate 
labor  organizations  and  the  payment  of  the  women  on  a  scale 
which  would  not  tempt  \vers  to  hire  them  merely  because 

they  were  cheaper  than  u.^...    Owing  to  differences  in  strength, 
permanency,   and  organization  of  processes   for  men  and   for 


176 


ECON.  MIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 


women,  such  a  wage  scale  might  not  in  every  case  mean  equal 
rates  for  the  two  sexes.  The  Ministry  of  Reconstruction  brought 
out  a  plan,  in  the  summer  of  1917,  for  "joint  standing  indus- 
trial  councils"  representing  employers  and  employes  to  consider 
workt" ;  conditimis,  wages,  and  industrial  methods  for  each 
occup.  ion  and  workshop.  The  government  has  tadorsed  the 
idea,  and  is  pressing  it  on  the  organized  trades.  Through  such 
industrial  councils  and  through  an  extension  of  minimum  wage 
boards  in  the  sweated,  unorganized  trades,  it  is  believed  that  the 
problem  of  keeping  the  new  opportunities  c^ien  for  women  witli- 
out  undermining  the  men's  standards  might  be  solved. 

Conditions  which  have  created  the  evils  of  over-strain,  exces-  • 
sive  hours,  and  damage  to  home  li  will  end  with  the  war.  In 
higher  wages,  better  working  conditions,  more  varied  and  in- 
teresting occupations,  and  most  important  of  all  a  broader  and 
more  confident  outlook  on  life,  there  is  promise  of  permanent 
gains.  Thus,  if  the  transition  period  after  the  war  is  safely 
passed,  it  appears  that  on-  the  whole  the  war  will  have  placed 
English  working  women  on  a  new  and  higher  plane. 


APPENDICES 


i-i 


Appendix  A 

The  {oHowing  table,  from  a  "Report  to  the  Board  of  Trade  on  the  State  of  Employment 
;n  the  United  KinBdom,"  of  February,  1915,  compares  the  number  of  male*  and  femalei  on 
full  time,  on  overtime,  on  short  time,  and  unemployed,  between  September,  19M,  and  Feb- 
ruary, 1915. 

STATE  OF  EMPLOYMENT  IN  SEPTEMBEB,  OCTOBER  AND  DECEMBER,  1914,  AND 

FEBBUARY,  191S 

(Nafflbm  Employed  in  July  —  100  per  cent.) 


September,  1914 

October,  1914 

December,  1914 

February,  1915 

FoU  lime  

M 

(0.2 
3,913,000 

F 
S3.5 

1,337,900 

H 
66.1 

4,342,000 

F 

61.9 

1,547,500 

M 

69.8 

4477,000 

F 

66.6 

1,665,000 

M 

68.4 
4,446,000 

F 

75.0 

1,875,000 

OvertiBW    

234,000 

2.1 

52,500 

9.2 
331.000 

9.9 

147,900 

12.t 
S32,000 

10.8 
270,000 

13.8 
897,000 

10.9 
272,500 

Sbon  time    

26.0 
1,690,000 

36.0 
900,000 

17.3 
1,124,900 

26.0 
650,000 

10.9 
682.900 

19.4 
485,000 

6.0 
390,000 

12.6 
315,000 

Contraction  in  Noi. 
employed     

10.2 
663,000 

1.4 

210,000 

10.7 
69S..J0 

6.2 
199,000 

10.9 
708,500 

3.2 
80,000 

11.8 
767.000 

1.5 
37,500 

Enlisted    

S.8 

572,000 

10.6 
689O00 

13.3 
864,500 

15.4 
1,010,000 

Net     dieplwcment 
(— )    or   replace- 
ment (+)   

—1.4 
—91.000 

— «.4 
—210.000 

2 
'^  ,000 

+2.4 
+  196.000 

—3.2 
—80,000 

+3.6 
+243,000 

-1.3 
—37,900 

Apptndix  B 

The  (ollowinB  tabic  indkatet  mmim  of  the  proecttc*  formerly  r<i«rvcd  for 
men  on  which  the  factory  inipectort  found  women  employed  by  the  end 
of  1915: 

INDUSTRY  PROCESSES 

Linoleum Attending  cork  grinding  and  embotiing  ma- 

machinci,  macninc  printing,  attending  Move, 
trimming  and  padcmg. 

Woodworking—  ...  ^        ^     , 

Bruih  making Fibre  drcticri,  bnuh  makrrt  and  on  boring 

niachinenr. 

Furniture Light  uphobtery,  cramping,  dowellfaig,  glueing, 

tret-work,  carving  by  hand  or  machine, 
(taining  and  poUthing. 

Sawmillf On  plantaig,  moulding,  wnd-paperine,  boring, 

mortising,  dovetailing,  .  loniag.  tumioff  and 
nailing  machines.  Taking  off  from  drcutar 
MWi ;  box  making,  printing  and  painting. 

Cooperage Barrel  nudcing  machine*. 

Paper  mflls In  rag  grinding  and  attending  to  beating  and 

brMtmig  maoiinet,  and  to  coating  macninet, 
calenders  and  in  certain  preparations  and 
6ni*hing  and  warehouse  processes. 

Printing. Machine  feeding  (on  platen  machines  and  on 

gufflotines)  and  as  linotype  operators. 

Wire  rope On  stranding  and  spinning  machines. 

Chemical  works Attending  at  crystallising  tanks  and  for  yard 

work. 

Soap As  aoap  millers  and  in  general  work. 

Paint At  roller  mills,  filling  tins  and  kegs,  labeling 

and  packing. 

Oil  and  cake  mills Truckiiis.  feeding  and  drawing  off  from  chutes, 

attending  to  presses. 

Flour  mills Truddng. 

Bread  and  biscuits Attending  to  dough-breaks,  biscuit  machines, 

and  at  the  ovens  assisting  bakers. 

Tobacco Leaf  cutting,  cigarette  making,  soldering,  truck- 
ing and  .warehouse  work. 

Rubber At  washing  machines,   grinding  mills,  dough 

rolls,  solutioning,  motor  tube  making. 

Malting .- Spreading  and  general  work. 

Breweries Cask  washing,  tun-room  work,  beer  bottling 

and  bottle  washing. 

Distilleries In  the  mill  and  yeast  houses. 

Cement .\ttending  weighing  machines,  trucking. 

Foundries Core  making,  moulding. 

Tanning  and  currying M  the  pits,  in  finishing  and  drying,  and  in 

oiling,  setting  up,  burnig  and  staining. 

Woolen  mills Beaming   and   overlooking,   attending   drying 

machmes,  carding,  pattern  weaving. 


if 

I- 


WOMEN  AND  CHIUMISK  IN  ORIAT  BRITAIN  181 

INDUSTRY  PROCESSES 

J«te  milli On  lolKnifif  iMchfawi,  dreiiinf  jrmrn,  c«J«n- 

""■•♦ton  mini In  blowtnf  room  on  ipinnini  mulw,  betminf, 

twittklf  and  drawing,  and  in  warchoufc. 

Hoiirry Foldlnf  and  warthoaw  work. 

lie*  Threading. 

Prfait,Meachanddyework»....B««tling,  Biiiiting  prinfert  at  ma.   inti   w»f». 

houM  procctiM. 


Appendix  C 

Th«  following  Ubl«j  from  th«  Mcond  report  of  the  BritUh  Auociation 
for  the  AHvanccmcnl  of  ijcicnce  brini  out  In  detail,  hrtt,  the  gradiwl  dii- 
•ppnrancc  of  uncmploynwnl  *nd  thort  time  and  the  IncresM  of  womtn't 
Humbert  in  iniluitry  from  September,  1914,  to  April,  1916;  lecood,  the  change* 
in  numbers  of  women  in  the  varioui  occupatiooi,  both  indu>tri«l  and  non- 
indutlrial  in  December,  1915,  and  April,  1916,  compared  with  July,  1914,  and, 
third,  iimilar  details  it  lo  the  number  of  women  who  were  ondertalcing  "men'* 
work." 

STATE  or  KMPLOVUCNT  OF  WOMEN  AT  VABIOUS  UATES  SI.NCL  THE  OCT- 
UEAK  OP  WAR,  COMPAHEO  WITH  STATE  OF  EMPLOVMENT  IN  JULY.  I*U 

("InduMrUl"  raiploirmcm  only.    Number*  nnplojrtd  Julr.  I'M  »  100  ptr  cinl.) 


Coatrtclloii  (— )  of  up 


W; 


MipleirM 


If  UMII. 

(+)    In    auakart 


Caiplo]r«4  on  ovcrtinw . . 
Eniplo]p<d  on  ihort  timo. 


14 

—*.4 

a.  I 

M.0 


Oct., 
I»H 


-4.2 
S.* 

M.0 


Dm.. 
ItU 


Pok., 
1*11 


—ta 

lo.a 

l*.4 


—I.I 
lo.t 

12.* 


Oct.. 
If  15 


+».4 
S.« 


Doc.. 
1*15 


+t.2 
14.5 
«.l 


Feb.. 
141* 


-10.9 
U.I 

4.* 


.\Hil. 

r*i* 


+ij.i 


EXTENSION  OF  THE  EMPLOYMENT  OF  WOMEN  IN  UECEMREIt,  1915, 
AND  APML.  19U 


Occupaliont  l.roiii' 


Buildini    

Minc«  tm)  Ouirrict 

M«t«l    Tridrs    

Ch^mKal    Tradct    

TexT>;e  Trodct   

ClothiM    Trade*    

Food  Trmdct    

Popii    .ind   Prindnf  Tr*d» 

Wood    Trsdci    

Other   Tradn    

.\ll  "industrial"  Occupations 

Commercial     

ProfffAsional     

Bankinf  and  Finance 

Public    Entertalnmenta    

Agriculture    

Trans[M)rt    

Civil   Service  

Arsenals,  Dockyards,  etc 

Local  Gorernment     (incl.  Teachers) .  ■ . 
Domestic    Service    

Totals  for  "Non-induttriar*  Occupations 

Totals  (or  all  Occupations 


Incre*a«(.f)  or 

Indutlrial 

Decreaa*  (— ) 

Population. 

n(  Femalet  in 

July.  1914,  Females 

+     J.MO 

'April.  19li 

7.000 

+    *.400 

9,000 

+        MO 

+     2.100 

144,000 

+  71,700 

+  126.900 

40.000 

+    19,400 

+   33,«00 

iSl.OOO 

+   29,700 

4-   27,800 

654.000 

+     6.70O 

+   11,700 

170.000 

+   31.700 

+   30,900 

1*9.000 

—        900 

39.000 

+     7,400 

+    13,200 

9«.0OO 

•f  25.400 
+  19«.500 

+   35,700 

3.180.000 

+287,500 

474.500 

+  191,000 

611,500 

+    13,000 
4-   23,000 

9.500 

V2.000 



+    14,000 

9,500 

+   16.000 

63,000 

+   29.000 

2,000 

■I-    13,000 

1*4.000 

.    -.1— 

■•   21.000 

983.000 

+  310.000 

).l«).0OO 



+  597.500 

WOMEN   AND  CHU-OHKN   IN  GkEAT  •RlfAlM 


183 


rMrxT  or  ^imtitition  of  tiuMiL  to*  male  wo«ke«»  in  l>EtE«l 

UK.  I«».  AMD  APRIL,  l»l» 

I  •ukMliuito"  ol  M*lM  "M« 

OcimH'lin'wtln'iiii  j 


nalMInt 

MiMt  »i>4  OnarrlM. 

MtttI  TnA    

{-|i«aik*l   Jnin    .. 


TtMlle   Tftdn 
~     itif  Ti    ■ 

r<M4  Ti 


0*iUb 


TrMin 


Piiwr  •■<  PilatiM  Tridt.. . . , 

Wood  Trtdm  

OilMf   Tt»4t»    

All  "IiKltnttW'  0««ii»«li<"w. 

ComiMnltl     

PralcMioatl 


Binkinitad   fiiiiiic* 

Publk   t«tTl»lniii»i>l    

Af  ricullurt     

Tranaport    

Ci»n  9tn\a   

Local  r->v«rnii««m  (Intl.  Tr»cli»r»i 

DomMik   S»r»lc»   

ToMi   for  "NoninduMrtal"  Occ«i'»tKiii«. 
Tnlll  (or  ill  Otcupllioni 


l>K«mtor.  KIS       | 

AiwU,  1*1* 

0,100 

3,700 

7O.J0O 

*,«00 

M.*00 
J0,«00 
J«,SOO 

23,iao 

11,400 
37,000 

4,400 
II7,4«» 
l*,30« 
71,400 
43,M0 
1S,0M 
31,M0 

t7,4«e 

17,400 

3*7,100 

J75.»O0 

:;;;;:;: 

lll*,000 

>t.e«o 

31,000 

tijm 

'iim 

11,1)00 
11,000 

);.«oo 

i«i,eoo 



»1«,«00 

Sua 


o 

S8 

z 

II 

o 

il 

K 

y 

U 

H 

2 

M 

id 

•9  B 

;-8"  :&s  ; 
*  S  B  e'a-s  .«    — 


ill 

-.3  3 


Appendix  F 

NUMBER  OF  ORDERS  MODIFYING  THE  LABOR  LAWS.  ISSUED 
FROM  AUGUST  4,  1914.  TO  FEBRUARY    19.  1915 

(Report  of  Ik*  Chief  Insfector  of  faclories  and  IVorkihops  for  I9'4.  P-  56) 


Textile : 

Wool    748 

Hosiery   231 

Cotton    1S9 

Flax    28 

Hemp  and  jute 29 

Silk  8 

Dyeing  and  finishing 37 

Leather  and  leather  equiptrsnt..  105 

Canvas  e  luipment 137 

Munitior.s   151 

ShipbuU'ling  15 

Electrical   supply    35 

Metal  acressories  141 

Machinery   57 

Wood   44 


aothing: 

Uniforms    3" 

•     Fur  coats   ^ 

Boots   245 

Caps   28 

Shirts   73 

Bedding  33 

Surgical  dressings 21 

Tobacco  W 

Food  37 

Tin  boxes  37 

Camp  equipment 52 

Wire  and  wire  netting 34 

Wagons,  etc   34 

Rubber  W 

Miscellaneous  73 


Total. 


.3,141 


Appendix  G 

f  .he  liniir  laws   in   1915   was   compiled   from   the 


Indusln 
Munitions. 

Woolen  and  worsted 
(from  May). 

Weaving   (July-Nov.). 
Hosiery. 


Cotton. 

Margarine. 

Window  shades. 

Flax. 

Rope  walks. 

Bleach  and  dye  works 

(surgical  dressings; 

raising  and  finishing 

fluinelette). 
Tanning  and  currying. 

Canvas  e<}uipment. 
Shipbuildmg. 


Bread  baking. 


Pastry     baking 
land). 


(Scot- 


Chocobte.* 


Leather  equipment.* 
Aerated  waters.* 
Glass. 


Persons  Agi-'il'd 

W'omen. 
Boys  over  14. 
Girls  over  lb. 
Women  and  young  per- 
sons. 

Women  and  young  per- 
sons over  16. 
Protected  persons. 

Protected  persons. 
Not  sUted. 
Not  stated. 
Not  stated. 
Not  sUted. 
Not  stated. 


Women. 
Boys  over  14. 
Not  sttted. 
Boyi  over  14. 


(a)  Boys  17. 

(b)  Boys  15  and  over. 

(a)  Women  and  boys  of 

17- 

(b)  Boys  IS  and  over. 

\.  jmen. 


Latiludi.- 


.\s  in  1914. 


6  hours  weekly  ovtrtime,  in  2-hour 

shifts  on  3  days  or  W.  hours  on 

4  days     No  overtime  on  Saturday. 

8  hours  weekly  overtime  in  2-hour 

sliifts  on  4  days. 

VA  hours  overtime  on  4  days,  or  I 
hour  on  5  days,  but  not  on  batur- 
day  or  Sunday. 

6  hours  overtime  weekly. 

Not  stated. 

Not  stated. 

Not  stated. 

6  hours  overtime  weekly. 

6  hears  overtime  weekly. 


Women  and  young  per- 
sons over  16. 
Women. 

Boys  over  13  (education- 
ally qualified  1. 


4  hours  overtime  weekly. 

5  hours  overtime  weekly. 

(a)  Overtime,  5  hours  a  w«k  for 
boys  under  16;  T/j  I'ours  for  those 
over  16. 

(b)  Eight-hour  shifts. 

(c)  Day  and  night  shlft^. 

(a)  Night    shift    (not    exceedmg    9 

(b)°Any  period  of  9  hours  between 

4  a.m.  and  8  p.m. 
(a)  NiRht   shift    (not   exceedmg    9 

(b)°  Any'  period  of  9  hour«  between 
4  a.m.  and  8  p.m.  ,  .    . 

When  necessary,  on  account  of  hot 
weather,  between  6  a.m.  and  10  p.m. 
for  two  spells  of  4  hours  eadi,  one 
in  the  morning  and  one  in  the  at- 
ternoon. 

Overtime  VA  hours  per  day. 

Extension    of    overtime    allowed    l)y 

S.  49. 
Kxtension  of  S.  55. 


*  The  order  expired  and  was  not  renewed. 


188 

Industry 
Oil  and  cake  mill*. 

Flour  miltt. 

Toyi  and  garnet.* 

Dairies. 


ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAl 


Lalilude 
8-hour  shifu,  or  day  and  nifht  thifti. 

8-hour  (biftt,  or  day  and  night  ihiict. 

Overtime  as  allowed  by  S.  49  and 
night  shifu  during  the  Christmas 
reason. 

5  hours  on  Sundays,  with  weekly 
limit  of  60  hours.  No  other  over- 
time during  the  week. 

8-hour  shifts,  or  day  and  niglit  shift. 

Suspension  of  certain  regulations. 

Overtime,  3  hours  per  week. 

Night  shift. 

( 1 )  Overtime,  Ayi  hours  per  week. 

(2)  Permission  for  Christians  to 
work  on  Saturday  and  Jews  on 
Sunday. 

Overtime,  2  hours  on  not  more  than 
4  days  a  week  and  on  not  more 
than  12  days  in  any  4  weeks. 

(1)  Different  periods  of  employment 
for  different  workers. 

(2)  Where  (1)  is  impracticable  over- 
time V/i  hours  per  day,  but  with 
a  weeklv  limit  of  6G  hours  exclusive 
of  meal  times. 

Rearrangement  of  the  statutory 
hours  but  period  of  employment 
not  to  exceed  14  hours  on  any  one 
day,  or  60  hours  (exclusive  of 
meal  times)  in  any  week. 

•  The  order  expired  and  was  not  renewed.  .  •  j   .  <  . 

+  A  new  order  which  was  allowed  in  all  non-textile  works  not  otherwise  provided  for. 
It  allowed  Ireater  elasticitv  than  was  provided  by  the  Factory  Acts,  and  permitted,  for  ex- 
amplrsucb  moderate  overtime  during  the  week  as  could  be  compensated  by  an  earlier  =top 
on  Saturdays. 


Paper  mills. 

Pottery. 

Sandtags.* 

Cement   (Essex  and 

Kent). 
Waterproof  capes  (War 

Office  contractt).* 


Manchester  warehouses. 


lACe  and  patent  net  fac- 
tories (processes  of 
threading,  brass  bob- 
bin winding,  jadcing 
off  and  stripping). 

Non-textile  works  en- 
gaged on  work  for  the 
Crown,  or  on  work  re- 
quired in  the  national 
interestt 


Persons  Affrcttd 
Women  and  boys  over 

16. 
Women  and  boys  over 

16. 
Women. 


Women  and  young  per- 
sons. 

Women. 
Not  stated. 

Women  and  young  per- 
sons. 
Women. 

Women  and  young  per- 
sons over  I& 


Women  and  boys  over 
16. 

Women,  girls  over   16; 
boys  over  14. 


Women,    girls   over    16; 
boys  over  14. 


Appendix  H 


BV   THE 


GENERAL  ORDER   REGULATING  OVERTIME   ISSUED 
HOME  OFFICE  SEPTEMBER  9,  1916. 

The  following  it  the  full  text  of  the  parts  of  the  order  applying  to  women: 

Scheme  A.  (Three  ShifU.) 

Thii  scheme  applies  to  women  and  female  young  persons  of  16  years  of 
age  and  over,  and  male  young  persons  of  14  years  of  age  and  over.  ThrM 
shift*,  none  of  which  may  be  longer  than  10  hours,  may  be  worked  m  each 
period  of  24  hours,  subject  to  the  following  conditions : 

(1)  Each  worker  shall  have  one  break  of  24  hours  or  more  m  every  week, 
or  of  32  hours  or  more  in  every  alternate  week,  or  of  40  hours  or  more  in 

(^  Each  worker  shall  have  an  interval  of  two  unemployed  shifts  between 
each  two  sWfU  of  employment  „  .      „       a   c  .i.    .w.t* 

(3)  An  interval  of  not  less  than  half  an  hour  snail  be  allowed  if  the  shift 
is  8  hours  or  less,  and  an  interval  of  not  less  than  one  hour  if  the  shift  is 
more  than  8  hours.  .  ,         .  l    •         u 

Provided  that  the  superintending  mspector  of  factories  may  authorize,  sub- 
ject to  conipliance  with  condition  (1)  and  to  such  other  conditions  as  he  may 
impose,  different  arrangements  as  regards  hours  of  work  and  breaks  at  the 
week  end  for  the  purpose  of  changing  over  the  shifts. 

Scheme  B.  (Two  ShifU.) 
This  scheme  applies  to  women  and  female  persons  of  16  years  of  age  and 
over  and  male  young  persons  of  14  years  of  age  and  over,  provided  that  the 
employment  in  the  night  shift  of  girls  under  18  o  .yoys  under  16  years  of 
age  shall  be  subject  in  each  case  to  the  approval  of  the  superintending  in- 
spector of  factories.  Two  shifts  of  12  hours  each  may  be  worked,  subject 
to  the  following  conditions :  .      .  l 

(1)  No  person  shall  be  employed  more  than  6  turns  by  day  or  more  than 
6  turns  by  night  in  any  week. 

(2)  Unless  otherwise  sanctioned  by  the  Sttperi.-.ending  mspector  no  person 
shall  be  employed  on  Sunday  except  in  a  night  shift  commencing  on  Sunday 
evening  or  ending  on  Sunday  morning. 

(3)  The  total  hours  worked  per  week  (exclusive  of  meal  times)  shall  not 
exceed  60  provided  that  in  the  case  of  male  young  persons  16  years  of  age  and 
over  the  total  hours  worked  per  week  (exclusive  of  meal  times)  may  be  63. 

(4)  Intervals  for  meals  amounting  to  not  less  than  Xyi  hours  shall  be 
allowed  in  the  course  of  each  shift,  of  which  in  the  case  of  the  night  shift 
one-fourth  of  an  hour  or  more  shall  be  allowed  as  a  break  within  4  hours  of 
the  end  of  the  shift. 

(5)  Each  worker  shall  have  an  interval  of  one  unemployed  shift  between 
each  two  shifts  of  employment. 

Providing  that  the  superintending  inspector  may  authorize,  subject  to  such 
conditions  as  he  may  impose,  a  system  of  one  long  shift  not  exceeding  13 
hours  with  a  corresponding  reduction  in  the  other  shift,  so  that  the  average 
weekly  total  of  hours  shall  not  exceed  the  limits  specified  above  in  para- 
graph (3). 


190 


ECONOMIC  ErrECTS  or  THE  WAR 


Ti,i.      I.      ^*'*^  *••  <*«««'»§«»»»«  0*  Statutory  Hoori.) 

^b)^Tht  d.lly  period  of  mployment  (fadudfa,  ovrtlme  «,d  int.rv.1,  to, 

(d)  No  rvertfane  ihan  be  worind  on  Sitardi^ 
Nav«l  Ship  Reptiring  Work 

ployed  on  repair  work  for  hTm.^^J^^.SL'^  '""'?  °'  f'  »"''  <>»"•  «•"- 
hour,  on  an/day  of  the  we  A  JrSr^'  '^'^  ""^  ^  employed  for  special 
oftcer  in  ch^r^^^d  wbT^^t^.^h  Zditto- ''""'i'""'  of  tBe  .enior  ?S^ 

.hin'WM^"cilVS"tTfe':;Sr(S,fci°n!eT^^^^^^  ^  T^^^f"  '-  "-' 

Mifccllaneous  Proviaions. 

tluit  where  not  le«  Our  mty^^,,M^JA°!  •'!•■'*  •»"*  *"  hour,  except 
of  six  hour,  may  be  wK  wSS  ,„  inflr*,?  ^f  ''"""•  I""  »f«enioon  .^ 
tea,  if  the  fi-tol^  inwctor'ir«.i.LH  f^f  °J  ""'""  "'  »"  ''O'"-  only  for 
the  worker  to  ^rtM>?  the  work.  .^^^^  1'°^"'°"  "  """■*  ^'" 

them  a,  ,oon  a.  they  .Sp  work.  '  ""*  '"r  tea  to  be  actually  read,  for 

4  "'^^r/ha^'l^arto'^^eTe^'rhZ'ntV^^^^  «"«*- 

A  woman  or  youjii  person  .SuWiLi'rT*"*  .*^?""K  ^^'  morning. 

^mn,  so  hea^  ./to-Je"'?ikr.o~i„'re  te^f  t^wS  ^  -| 

foP^mMdT^  fce^tTeSr^of"'^;-^;'"'"''  ""«  *»'-»  ■"•«-i-. 

fJ^TZ  f^oSln's'p^o?'-??!  ^.ii^rV-^"'  "'--^■•o".  to  the  «ti.- 
meal,.  and  in  thfc^J?  '^'^\-  Z^?^^.!^'^^,^  ^°'  '^«.»"''  ^f 
worker  or  a  responsible  forewomrn.         '         **''  ""^"^''o"  hy  a  welfare 

Circular  letter  196802  to  accompany  Home  Off..,  Order  of  Sent  Q  lo,* 

.f  cK'SlciJiy^  ?o  thV"dar,h°i?t-  ^  ;;;i^""y  ^";i-hift 

They  should*^o^^';,'r"nU°rk!^dicSa^,r'  '"'   "^^»   "'"'' 


